<p>Lake Tisza , also known as Kisköre Reservoir , is the largest artificial lake in Hungary. It is located at the southeastern edge of Heves county, next to counties Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén, Hajdú-Bihar and Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok.</p><br>
<p>As part of the ongoing Tisza River flood control project, the Tisza Dam was built in 1973. Its filling was finished in the 1990s, resulting a 127 km² lake. The lake is 27 km in length, with an average depth of 1.3 m and a maximum depth of 17 m; it contains 43 km² of small islands.</p><br>
<p>Following the reservoir&#39;s completion, Hungarians began to flock to the site for holidays, since it compared favorably with the crowded and expensive Lake Balaton, the traditional holiday site. As a result, tourist infrastructure has been developed on the reservoir&mdash;renamed Lake Tisza&mdash;and the government has designated it an official tourism destination.</p><br>
<p>The lake (or reservoir) has a new local ecology with a diversity of birds, plants, and animals.</p><br>
<p>Lake Tisza Ecocentre in Poroszló was erected to collect and display the nature and wildlife of the Tisza River valley and Lake Tisza. It was opened to the public on 27 April 2012.</p><br>
<p>Jaluit Atoll  is a large coral atoll of 91 islands in the Pacific Ocean and forms a legislative district of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands. Its total land area is 11.34 km&sup2, and it encloses a lagoon with an area of 690 km&sup2;. Most of the land area is on the largest islet  of Jaluit . Jaluit is approximately 220 km southwest of Majuro. Jaluit Atoll is a designated conservation area and Ramsar Wetland.</p><br>
<p>In 2011 the population of the islands of Jaluit Atoll was 1,788. It was the former administrative seat of the Marshall Islands.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The British merchant vessel Rolla sighted Jaluit in 1803. She had transported convicts from Britain to New South Wales and was on her way to China to find a cargo to take back to Britain.</p><br>
<p>The German Empire claimed Jaluit Atoll along with the rest of the Marshall Islands in 1884, and the Germans established a trading outpost. Jaluit became a German protectorate on 13 September 1886 and had several imperial commissars (Kaiserliche Kommissare):</p><br>
<p>11 May 1894 – March 1898 Georg Irmer (b. 1853 – d. 1931)</p><br>
<p>24 March 1898 – 18 January 1906 Eugen Brandeis (b. 1846 – d. 1919) (acting to 22 February 1900)</p><br>
<p>18 January 1906 – May 1906 Ludwig Kaiser (acting) (b. 1862 – d. 1906)</p><br>
<p>1 April 1906 – 3 October 1914 the governors of German New Guinea; afterwards the jurisdiction was downgraded to district, under a Bezirksamtmann</p><br>
<p>After World War I, the island became a part of Nanyo, a mandated territory of the Empire of Japan, and was the seat of the Japanese administration over the Marshall Islands. Immigrants from Japan numbered several hundred by the 1930s. During World War II the island&#39;s Japanese garrison consisted of 1,584 men of the IJN and 727 men of the IJA. The island was bombed on five occasions in November and December 1943 by B-24 Liberator bombers of the USAAF 7th Air Force.</p><br>
<p>Following World War II, Jaluit came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands until the independence of the Marshall Islands in 1986.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Jaluit Atoll&#39;s lagoon is shaped roughly like a cross.</p><br>
<p>The islet of Jabor (Jebwad, ) has the largest population center on Jaluit Atoll, with a population of approximately 1,200. The island features a small hotel, small stores that sell staple foods, and a gasoline station. Jabor is a base for commercial and sports fishing, where motorboats can be rented. Snorkeling spots are around the sunken dock by the airport and in the northern pass into the lagoon.</p><br>
<p>Imiej (Im̧wej, ) is an islet a 45-minute boat ride from Jabor. It used to be the headquarters for the Imperial Japanese Navy garrison and was a major seaplane base. The ruins of the power station, barracks, anti-aircraft guns and a Shinto shrine remain.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>Jabor has two elementary schools: St. Josephs, attached to the Catholic Church, and a public school. There are also elementary schools in Jaluit motu and Iemej. Jaluit High School is a boarding school that serves students from Jaluit Atoll and the southern atolls of Ebon, Ailinglaplap, Namu, Kili, Namdrik and Jabat.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Jaluit Airport is served by Air Marshall Islands.</p><br>
<p>The Maloelap Atoll   is a coral atoll of 71 islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district of the Ratak Chain of the Marshall Islands. Its land area is only 9.8 km&sup2, but that encloses a lagoon of 972 km&sup2;. It is located 18 km north of the atoll of Aur. In 1999 the population of the islands of the atoll was 856.</p><br>
<p>The largest of the islands that make up the atoll are Taroa (the administrative center of the atoll), in the northeast, and Kaben in the northwest. Only three of the other islands in the atoll are inhabited: Airuk, Wolot and Jang. The island is served by Air Marshall Islands via Maloelap Airport.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Maloelap Atoll was claimed by the Empire of Germany along with the rest of the Marshall Islands in 1884, and the Germans established a trading outpost. After World War I, the island came under the South Pacific Mandate of the Empire of Japan.</p><br>
<p>In 1939, the Japanese built a seaplane base and landplane Taroa Airfield with two runways (4800 + 4100) and support buildings and facilities, including a radar station. During World War II the Japanese garrison of 2,940 navy men and 389 army men was commanded by Rear Admiral Shoichi Kamada. The perimeter of the island was heavily fortified with 12 heavy coastal artillery and 10 heavy anti-aircraft guns. The island was attacked by the United States Navy beginning in February 1942 starting with carrier-based aircraft and shelling by warships. The attacks grew in frequency and severity after Majuro and Kwajalein had fallen to the Americans. Of the 3097-man Japanese garrison (1772 Imperial Japanese Navy, 368 Imperial Japanese Army, and 957 civilians) only 1041 (34%) survived the war. Several Marshallese were also killed. A large number of war relics, including plane wrecks, mainly Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters and Mitsubishi G4M Betty bombers remain scattered about.</p><br>
<p>Following the end of World War II, the island came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands until the independence of the Marshall Islands in 1986. Maloelap Atoll was the first to ratify the Marshall Islands&#39; constitution.</p><br>
<p>Ailinglaplap or Ailinglapalap  is a coral atoll of 56 islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district of the Ralik Chain in the Marshall Islands. It is located 152 km northwest of Jaluit Atoll. Its total land area is only 14.7 km&sup2, but it encloses a lagoon of 750 km&sup2;. The economy of the atoll is dominated by coconut plantations. The population of the atoll was 1,959 in 1999. Jabat Island is located off the coast of Ailinglaplap Atoll. The former president of the Marshall Islands, Kessai Note, was born on Jeh Island, Ailinglaplap Atoll.</p><br>
<p>"Ailinglaplap" translates as "greatest atoll" (aelōn̄ (atoll) + ļapļap (superlative suffix)), because the greatest legends of the Marshallese people were created there. The four major population centers on Ailinglaplap Atoll are the settlements of Woja, at the westernmost end of the atoll, Jeh in the northeast, and Airok and Bouj in the south.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The British merchant vessel Rolla sighted several islands in the Ratak and Ralik Chains. On 6 November 1803 she sighted islands at 7&deg;12&prime;N latitude, 166&deg;40&prime;E longitude, which was possibly Ailinglaplap Atoll. The next day six canoes of friendly natives came off. Rolla had transported convicts from Britain to New South Wales and was on her way to Canton to find a cargo to take back to Britain.</p><br>
<p>In 1884, the Empire of Germany claimed Ailinglaplap Atoll along with the rest of the Marshall Islands. A number of European trading stations were established on the islands to Ailingkaplap as part of the copra trade. After World War I, the island came under the South Pacific Mandate of the Empire of Japan. Following the end of World War II, it came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands until the independence of the Marshall Islands in 1986.</p><br>
<p>The current Iroijlaplap (or paramount chief) of Ailinglaplap is Anjua Loeak.</p><br>
<h2>Infrastructure</h2><br>
<p>There are 3 airstrips on the atoll, which are served by Air Marshall Islands when its aircraft are operational:</p><br>
<p>Ailinglaplap Airok Airport is located to the south: 7&deg;16&prime;45&Prime;N latitude, 168&deg;49&prime;32&Prime;E longitude.</p><br>
<p>Jeh Airport is located to the northeast: 7&deg;33&prime;54&Prime;N latitude, 168&deg;57&prime;42&Prime;E longitude.</p><br>
<p>Woja Airport is located to west: 7&deg;27&prime;03&Prime;N latitude, 168&deg;33&prime;00&Prime;E longitude.</p><br>
<p>Arno Atoll  is a coral atoll of 133 islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district of the Ratak Chain of the Marshall Islands. Its total land area is only 5 square miles. Unlike most other atolls, Arno encloses three different lagoons, a large central one, and two smaller ones in the north and east. Its main lagoon encloses an area of 130.77 square miles. At a distance of only 20 km, it is the closest atoll to the Marshall Islands capital, Majuro Atoll, and can be seen looking east from Majuro on a clear day at low tide.</p><br>
<p>The population of Arno Atoll was 2,069 at the 1999 census. The most populous islets are Ajeltokrok, Kobjeltak, Rearlaplap, Langor and Tutu. The largest village is Ine, Arno.</p><br>
<p>People of Arno are well known for their productivity in making copra (the dried out meat of coconuts, from which coconut oil is extracted). Arno women are renowned for their production of the Kili Bag, a popular handwoven handbag/purse, named after another island in the Marshall Islands (to which the people of Bikini were eventually relocated as a result of the US nuclear tests that were conducted on their home atoll). Arno supposedly had a traditional "love school".</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Arno Atoll was claimed by the Empire of Germany along with the rest of the Marshall Islands in 1884. After World War I, the island came under the South Pacific Mandate of the Empire of Japan. Following the end of World War II, Arno Atoll came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. The island has been part of the independent Republic of the Marshall Islands since 1986.</p><br>
<p>The Copeland Islands is a group of three islands in the north Irish Sea, north of Donaghadee, County Down, Northern Ireland consisting of Lighthouse, Mew and Copeland Island. They lie within the civil parish of Bangor.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The Copeland Islands most likely derive their name from the de Coupland family, who settled in the Newtownards peninsula area along with other Normans in the 12th century. This family also lent their name to other landmarks in the vicinity such as Copeland Water near Carrickfergus and the townland of Ballycopeland in the civil parish of Donaghadee.</p><br>
<p>The earliest possible recorded name for the islands however may be the Old Norse Kaupmanneyjar (kaupmann meaning "merchant" and ey meaning "island"), recorded in the Norse Hakonar Saga Gamla, and dated to 1230. It has been suggested that "Kaupmann" developed into "Copman" and then into "Copeland", with the form "Copman" recorded several times in the late 16th century in reference to the islands.</p><br>
<p>The original Irish name for the islands is unknown, however it has been suggested that the 1570c usage of "Helaine Harrn" may be an attempt at Anglicising the Irish name Oileáin Árann (island of the (kidney-shaped) ridge). The modern Irish name however is a Gaelicisation of Copeland Islands into Oileáin Chóplainn.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>There are three islands included in the Copeland Islands: the Great Copeland Island, the Lighthouse Island (which does not have a lighthouse now) and Mew Island which does have a lighthouse. Over a century ago the Lighthouse Island had a population of about 100, including a school master with 28 pupils. In 1671 James Ross obtained a fee farm grant of these and in 1770 David Kerr purchased the islands from the Earl of Clanbrassil. As the islands were a danger to ships a light beacon was made on the Lighhouse Island (Cross Island) in about 1715, it burned over 400 tons of coal every year. In 1796 the new British and Irish Lighthouse Board announced the erection of oil lamps and in 1813 the new lighthouse was built. In 1884 a new lighthouse was built on Mew Island. In 1954 the Bird Observatory was established by Arnold Bennington.</p><br>
<p>Until the 20th century, the islands were used by smugglers who brought tobacco and spirits through the islands and into County Down.</p><br>
<h2>Area of Special Scientific Interest (ASSI)</h2><br>
<p>Copeland Islands ASSI is located off the County Down coast of Northern Ireland and comprises The Great Copeland, Lighthouse Island and Mew Island. The islands are important sites for breeding seabirds and waders, in addition to their coastal plant communities and geological features.</p><br>
<p>Big Copeland supports the most diverse range of habitats of the three islands. Communities influenced by the sea are found around the shore with maritime cliff vegetation and pockets of salt marsh also present. The centre of the island is occupied by semi-improved wet grassland with frequent areas of marsh.</p><br>
<h2>Flora</h2><br>
<p>The vegetation on Light House Island consists of short rabbit grazed turf with large areas of rank bracken (Pteridium aquilinum) and Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera). Scots lovage (Ligusticum scoticum) and sea purslane (Halimione portulacoides). Lighthouse Island represents the southern limit for Scots lovage in Europe and the northern limit for sea purslane in Ireland. Other plants on the islands include Hyacinthoides non-scripta, Hyacinthoides hispanica, Dactylorhiza purpurella and Centaurium erythraea.</p><br>
<p>Mew Island is dominated by rank stands of grass and bracken but, as on all the islands, notable areas of inter-tidal and exposed rock habitat are present.</p><br>
<h3>Algae</h3><br>
<p>The marine algae of the Lighthouse Island and the Mew Islands was studied in 1975 and the 56 species, or genera, identified were listed and published.</p><br>
<h3>Lichens</h3><br>
<p>Nineteen species of lichens were collected in 1984, the identifications were confirmed or corrected by Dr A Fletcher. As far as is known these are the only records of lichens from the Lighthouse Island.</p><br>
<p>Lecanora atra (Huds.) Ach.</p><br>
<p>Lecanora gangaleoides (Nyl.)</p><br>
<p>Ochrolechia parella (L.) Massel</p><br>
<p>Parmelia caperata (L.) Ach.</p><br>
<p>Ramalina siliquosa (Huds.) A.L.Sm.</p><br>
<p>Xanthoria parietina (L.) Th. Fr.</p><br>
<p>Anaptychia fusca (Huds.) Vainio</p><br>
<p>Diplotomma chlorophaeum (Hepp ex Mull.Argh.) Szat.</p><br>
<p>Lecanora ploytropa (Hoffm.) Rabenh.</p><br>
<p>Lecanora rupicola (L.) Zahlbr.</p><br>
<p>Lecidella subincongrua (Nyl.) Hertel and Luckert</p><br>
<p>Ochrolechia parella (L.) Massel</p><br>
<p>Parmelia sulcata Taylor</p><br>
<p>Polysporina simplex (Davies) Vezda</p><br>
<p>Rhizocarpon constrictum Malme</p><br>
<p>Rhizocarpon geographicum (L.) DC</p><br>
<p>Verrucaria ditmarsica Erichen</p><br>
<p>Verrucaria maura Wahlenb.</p><br>
<h2>Fauna</h2><br>
<p>The islands are internationally important sites for breeding populations of Manx shearwater and Arctic tern and nationally important sites for breeding Mediterranean gull, common gull and eider duck. The Manx shearwater colony on Copeland Islands holds more than 1.7% of the world population. The colony is in excess of four thousand pairs. The rabbit populations on the islands play an important role in the breeding success of the Manx shearwater as the latter mainly nest in the rabbit burrows that honeycomb the islands. Grazing by rabbits maintains a short sward, which is desirable for the fledglings.</p><br>
<p>the Great Copeland has an internationally important Arctic tern colony, with some 550 pairs. The site now represents the largest colony for this species in Ireland. Mew Island has been an important tern colony in the past and it is hoped that positive management will encourage terns to become re-established. The islands are the most important breeding sites in Northern Ireland for common gull with over 250 pairs present. Big Copeland has recently held Northern Ireland’s first successful breeding pair of Mediterranean gull. The islands are home to a nationally important population of breeding eider duck. In total the three islands account for 14% of the Irish population. Non-breeding eider form part of the nationally important population that occurs along the Outer Ards coast and Belfast Lough areas.</p><br>
<p>Other breeding colonies of note include black guillemot, water rail and stock dove. The latter species has suffered a dramatic decline in Northern Ireland, but numbers have increased on Copeland with some 100 pairs now breeding. Breeding waders such as lapwing and snipe may be found further inland. Here the taller vegetation, interspersed with open areas, provides an ideal breeding habitat. Birds of prey favour the islands when the breeding season is over. Hen harrier, sparrowhawk, buzzard, kestrel, merlin and peregrine falcon are all seen regularly.</p><br>
<p>Mammals, such as the grey seal, common seal, harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena), bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncates), minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata), harbor seal (Phoca vitulina), common dolphin (Delphinus delphis) and otter (Lutra lutra) have been reported from the Copeland Islands.</p><br>
<p>Lepidoptera have also been recorded. 19 species of butterflies, 31 species of macro-Lepidoptera and three species of micro-Lepidoptera.</p><br>
<p>A beetle new to Northern Ireland was recorded in 2013: Diplapion confluens (Kirby).Reid, C.A.M. 2015. Diplapion confluens (Kirby)(Coleoptera: Brentidae), new for Northern Ireland,</p><br>
<p>at Lighthouse Island, County Down, with notes on other insects at this locality. Ir Nat J. 34: 135-136</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>There is public passenger boat service to the islands during the summer months from Donaghadee harbour, allowing a visit of a few hours.</p><br>
<h2>Lighthouses</h2><br>
<p>A light station was established on Lighthouse Island in the early 18th century and a lighthouse built in 1815. It has been inactive since 1884, when the lighthouse was abandoned in favour of the Mew Island Lighthouse, but the ruined stump of the 16 m (52 ft) stone tower remains. The ruins of the keeper&#39;s house have been rebuilt to house a bird observatory. The island is now owned by the National Trust and operated by the volunteer members of the Copeland Bird Observatory. Overnight accommodation is available but only by arrangement with the Bird Observatory.</p><br>
<p>The Mew Island Lighthouse is currently active, and was converted to automatic operation with the lighthouse keepers permanently withdrawn in 1996.</p><br>
<h2>MV Princess Victoria</h2><br>
<p>On the 31st of January 1953 the Stranraer to Larne ferry, MV Princess Victoria, sank near the Copeland Islands with the loss of 133 lives. At the time it was the largest peacetime maritime disaster in UK history.</p><br>
<p>Aigaleo or Egaleo  is a municipality in the western part of the Athens agglomeration, Greece. It takes its name from Mount Aigaleo. Its population was 69,946 at the 2011 census.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Aigaleo is situated 4 km west of Athens city centre. The municipality has an area of 6.450 km. It is southeast of Mount Aigaleo. The Cephissus river flows through the industrialized eastern part of the municipality; about 1/4 of its area is taken up by factory developments. The town is served by a Athens Metro station: Egaleo metro station. The Motorway 1 (Athens-Thessaloniki) passes through the town.</p><br>
<p>Aigaleo consists of the quarters Kato Aigaleo, Neo Aigaleo, Damarakia, Lioumi, Rosika, Agios Spyridonas and Agios Georgios.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Aigaleo was part of the municipality of Athens until 1934, when it became a separate community. It was raised to municipality status in 1943.</p><br>
<p>The city&#39;s present mayor is Dimitris Birbas.</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<h2>Sports</h2><br>
<p>Aigaleo hosts many sport teams. The most successful is the Athletic Club Egaleo with successful departments in football (Egaleo FC) and basketball (Egaleo BC). Other amateur clubs are A.P.O. Orfeas, A.E. Egaleo City, A.S. Diagoras Dryopideon, A.P.O. Ierapolis, A.O. Cronos</p><br>
<h2>Mayors</h2><br>
<p>Athanasios Papadopoulos (first president of the community "Nees Kydonies")</p><br>
<p>Giorgos Kourousis</p><br>
<p>Ioannis Batzakidis (1944)</p><br>
<p>Aggelos Kouvelos (1947–1950)</p><br>
<p>Apostolos Stigas (1951–1954)</p><br>
<p>Stavros Mavrothalassitis (1955–1967, 1974–1978)</p><br>
<p>Orfeas Tzanetopoulos (appointed by the military government, 1967–74)</p><br>
<p>Panos Spiliopoulos (1979–1986, 1991–1994)</p><br>
<p>Ioannis Mistakopoulos (1987–1990, 1995–2002)</p><br>
<p>Dimitris Kalogeropoulos (2003–2010)</p><br>
<p>Christos Kardaras (2010 – August 31, 2014)</p><br>
<p>Dimitris Birbas (September 1, 2014 – present)</p><br>
<h2>People</h2><br>
<p>Rita Abatzi, Greek musician</p><br>
<p>Keti Garbi, Greek singer</p><br>
<p>Tassos Halkias, Greek actor</p><br>
<p>Sophia Strati, Greek singer</p><br>
<p>Giorgos Zampetas, Greek musician</p><br>
<p>Eleni Rantou, Greek actor</p><br>
<p>Lakis Halkias, Greek musician</p><br>
<p>Kostas Prekas, Greek actor</p><br>
<p>Ioannes Dimaras, Greek politician and journalist</p><br>
<p>Nasos Athanasiou, Greek journalist</p><br>
<p>Giorgos Messalas, Greek actor</p><br>
<p>Danis Katranidis, Greek actor</p><br>
<p>Alexandros Asonitis, Greek writer</p><br>
<p>Theofilos Verikios, Greek writer</p><br>
<p>Giorgos Blanas, Greek writer</p><br>
<p>Nikolaos Mihiotis, Greek writer</p><br>
<p>Vicky Psarakis, Greek singer</p><br>
<h2>International relations</h2><br>
<p>Aigaleo is twinned with:</p><br>
<p>Leganés (Comunidad de Madrid), Spain</p><br>
<p>Kythrea, Cyprus (under Turkish occupation, since August 1974)</p><br>
<p>Pawnee Rock, one of the most famous and beautiful landmarks on the Santa Fe Trail, is located in Pawnee Rock State Park, just north of Pawnee Rock, Kansas, United States. Originally over 150 ft tall, railroad construction stripped it of some 15 to 20 ft in height for road bed material.</p><br>
<p>A memorial monument, picnic area, and pergola have been constructed on the top. From the top of the pergola is a view the Arkansas river valley and the route of the Santa Fe trail.</p><br>
<p>Today it is a prominence rising 50 or above the surrounding plains. Matt Field, who traveled the Santa Fe Trail in 1840, later wrote, "Pawnee Rock springs like a huge wart from the carpeted green of the prairie." Traders, soldiers, and emigrants who stopped, carved their names into the brown sandstone. Some of these names are still visible among the graffiti of the more recent visitors.</p><br>
<p>Pawnee Rock was added to the National Register of Historic Places around 1970. The site is administrated by the Kansas Historical Society as the Pawnee Rock State Historic Site.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Pawnee Rock was long a meeting place of the Comanche, Kiowa, Arapaho and Cheyenne Indians. Numerous battles were fought at Pawnee Rock between the tribes, and as a result, many bones have been found in the soil in the vicinity.</p><br>
<p>Pawnee Rock was for many years a place where Comanche, Kiowa, Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Pawnee tribes held their councils of war and peace. Many Indian battles were fought nearby in the days before the white men came to Kansas.</p><br>
<p>It served as a lookout for travelers on the Santa Fe Trail, as well as a rendezvous and ambush for the Indians. As a camping spot it afforded some protection against hostile Indians. Many travelers and traders on the Santa Fe trail considered Pawnee Rock the most dangerous place on the Central Plains for encounters with the Indians.</p><br>
<p>Many of the Plains tribes reportedly used it as an observation point from which they could track and swoop down upon buffalo herds and wagon trains. It was also a landmark for travelers, marking the half waypoint between Missouri and Santa Fe. In 1848, James Birch, a soldier on his way to the Mexican War, wrote: "Pawnee Rock was covered with names carved by the men who had passed it. It was so full that I could find no place for mine.".</p><br>
<h2>Naming Pawnee Rock</h2><br>
<h2>Bibliography</h2><br>
<p>Biographical History of Barton County, Kansas; Tribune Publishing Co. Great Bend, Kansas; 1912 p 145</p><br>
<p>Blackmar, Frank W. Kansas, A cyclopedia of State History, V. 2; Chicago Standard Publishing Col; 1912; pp 455–457</p><br>
<p>Porter, Clyde & Mae Reed and John E. Sunder; Matt Field on the Santa Fe Trail; University of Oklahoma Press; Norman, Oklahoma; 1960</p><br>
<p>Survey of Historic Sites and Structures in Kansas; Kansas State Historical Society; Topeka, Kansas; 1957</p><br>
<p>The Wallaman Falls, a cascade and horsetail waterfall on the Stony Creek, is located in the UNESCO World Heritagelisted Wet Tropics in the northern region of Queensland, Australia. The waterfall is notable for its main drop of 268 m, An estimated 100,000 people visit the waterfall annually.</p><br>
<h2>Location and features</h2><br>
<p>The waterfall is situated in the Girringun National Park as it descends from the Atherton Tableland, where the Stony Creek, a tributary of the Herbert River, flows over an escarpment in the Seaview Range. The falls initially descend over a small number of cascades before the 268 m horsetail drop. In total, the falls descend over 305 m. Based on the falls&#39; single-drop descent, the World Waterfall Database places Wallaman Falls at 294 in its world rankings.</p><br>
<p>The geological history of the formation may be traced back some 50 million years, when the uplift of the continental margin in the region created modern landforms. The Herbert River, which previously flowed west, began to cut through the terrain en route to its outflow in the Coral Sea. The gorge produced by this erosive action gradually retreated inland along the Herbert Rivers course at a rate of 40 cm per hundred years. The rivers tributaries were eventually left suspended by this action, forming their own gorges.</p><br>
<p>Rio  is a town in the suburbs of Patras and a former municipality in Achaea, West Greece, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Patras, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 98.983 km. The municipal unit had a population of 14,622 in 2011. The campus of the University of Patras and the Casino Rio is located in Rio.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Rion is the northernmost municipal unit of the Peloponnese peninsula. It stretches along the southeastern coast of the Gulf of Patras, about 7 km northeast of Patras city centre. The nearby Strait of Rio, crossed by the Rio–Antirrio bridge, separates the Gulf of Patras from the Gulf of Corinth to the east. The town is dominated by the Panachaiko mountain to the southeast.</p><br>
<h2>Town layout</h2><br>
<p>The town centre is also known as Agios Georgios Riou. This is where the Rio railway station, on the line from Patras to Corinth, is located. The quarter Kastellokampos lies to the southwest of the centre. The ferry terminals, with services to Antirrio, are in the north, on both sides of the Rio–Antirrio bridge. There is a large fortress with bastions next to the bridge. The campus of the University of Patras and the hospital lie in the southeast, across the Greek National Road 8A. There are sandy beaches along the coast, and a port north of town centre.</p><br>
<h3>Subdivisions</h3><br>
<p>The municipal unit Rio is subdivided into the following communities (constituent villages in brackets):</p><br>
<p>Agios Vasileios</p><br>
<p>Aktaio</p><br>
<p>Ano Kastritsi</p><br>
<p>Arachovitika (Arachovitika, Kato Arachovitika)</p><br>
<p>Argyra</p><br>
<p>Drepano</p><br>
<p>Kato Kastritsi (Kato Kastritsi, Magoula)</p><br>
<p>Pititsa</p><br>
<p>Platani</p><br>
<p>Psathopyrgos (Psathopyrgos, Kato Rodini)</p><br>
<p>Sella</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The name Rio (and its older form Rhion) derives from the Greek ῥίον (rhion), generally meaning "jutting part", perhaps from ῥίς (rhis), meaning "nose", but also "spur of land". The earliest attested form of the word is the Mycenaean Greek 𐀪𐀍, ri-jo, written in Linear B syllabic script.</p><br>
<p>The site of Rio has been a strategic point since antiquity. Early 19th century, there stood an old Turkish castle (the Morea Castle) at the cape, with a small settlement outside its walls.</p><br>
<h2>Government</h2><br>
<p>The mayors of the municipality were:</p><br>
<p>Vasileios Zervas (1998–2006)</p><br>
<p>Christos Liakopoulos (2006–2010)</p><br>
<h2>Population</h2><br>
<p>Trinity Church Cemetery consists of three separate burial grounds associated with Trinity Church in New York City. The first was established in the Churchyard located at 74 Trinity Place at Wall Street and Broadway. In 1842, the church, running out of space in its churchyard, established Trinity Church Cemetery and Mausoleum in Upper Manhattan between Broadway and Riverside Drive, at the Chapel of the Intercession , formerly the location of John James Audubons estate. A third burial place is the Churchyard of St. Pauls Chapel.</p><br>
<p>A no longer extant Trinity Church Cemetery was the Old Saint Johns Burying Ground for St. Johns Chapel. This location is bounded by Hudson, Leroy and Clarkson Streets near Hudson Square. It was in use from 1806&ndash;52 with over 10,000 burials, mostly poor and young. In 1897, it was turned into St. John&#39;s Park, with most of the burials left in place. The park was later renamed Hudson Park, and is now James J. Walker Park.</p><br>
<p>The burial grounds have been the final resting place for many historic figures since the Churchyard cemetery opened in 1697. A non-denominational cemetery, it is listed in the United States National Register of Historic Places and is the only remaining active cemetery in Manhattan. There are two bronze plaques at the Church of the Intercession cemetery commemorating the Battle of Fort Washington, which included some of the fiercest fighting of the Revolutionary War.</p><br>
<p>Trinity Church Cemetery, along with Broadway, marks the center of the Heritage Rose District of NYC.</p><br>
<h2>Notable burials</h2><br>
<h3>Trinity Churchyard</h3><br>
<p>William Alexander, Lord Stirling (1726–1783), Continental Army Major General during the American Revolution</p><br>
<p>John Alsop (1724–1794), Continental Congress delegate</p><br>
<p>William Bayard Jr. (1761–1826), banker</p><br>
<p>William Berczy (1744–1813), Canadian painter</p><br>
<p>William Bradford (1660–1752), colonial American printer</p><br>
<p>Richard Churcher (1676–1681), a child whose grave is marked with the oldest carved gravestone in New York City</p><br>
<p>Angelica Schuyler Church (1756–1814), daughter of Philip Schuyler, sister of Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton</p><br>
<p>Michael Cresap (1742–1775), frontiersman</p><br>
<p>John R. Fellows (1832–1896), USA representative</p><br>
<p>Robert Fulton (1765–1815), inventor</p><br>
<p>Albert Gallatin (1761–1849), USA congressman, Secretary of the Treasury, founder of New York University</p><br>
<p>Horatio Gates (1727–1806), Continental Army general during the American Revolution</p><br>
<p>Aaron Hackley, Jr. (1783–1868), USA representative</p><br>
<p>Alexander Hamilton (1755–1804), American revolutionary patriot and "founding father&quot first USA Secretary of the Treasury</p><br>
<p>Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton (1757–1854), wife of Alexander Hamilton, co-founder and deputy director of New York&#39;s first private orphanage</p><br>
<p>Philip Hamilton (1782–1801), first son of Alexander Hamilton, grandson of USA General Philip Schuyler</p><br>
<p>John Sloss Hobart (1738–1805), USA senator</p><br>
<p>William Hogan (1792–1874), USA congressman</p><br>
<p>James Lawrence (1781–1813), naval hero during the War of 1812</p><br>
<p>Francis Lewis (1713–1802), signer of the Declaration of Independence</p><br>
<p>Walter Livingston (1740–1797), delegate to the Continental Congress</p><br>
<p>Luther Martin (1744–1826), delegate to the Continental Congress</p><br>
<p>Charles McKnight (1750–1791), Continental Army surgeon</p><br>
<p>John Jordan Morgan (1770–1849), USA representative</p><br>
<p>Thomas Jackson Oakley (1783–1857), USA representative</p><br>
<p>John Morin Scott (1730–1784), Continental Congress delegate, Revolutionary War general, first secretary of state of New York</p><br>
<p>George Templeton Strong (1820–1875), diarist, abolitionist, lawyer</p><br>
<p>Robert Swartwout (1779–1848), brigadier general, Quartermaster general of the War of 1812</p><br>
<p>Silas Talbot (1750–1813), USA Navy commodore, second captain of the USS Constitution</p><br>
<p>John Watts (1749–1836), USA representative</p><br>
<p>Franklin Wharton (1767–1818), Commandant of the Marine Corps, 1804–1818</p><br>
<p>Hugh Williamson (1735–1802), American politician, signer of the Constitution of the United States</p><br>
<p>John Peter Zenger (1697–1746), newspaper publisher whose libel trial helped establish the right to a free press</p><br>
<h3>Trinity Church Cemetery and Mausoleum</h3><br>
<p>Mercedes de Acosta (1893–1968), writer, socialite</p><br>
<p>Rita de Acosta Lydig (1876–1929), socialite</p><br>
<p>John Jacob Astor (1763–1848) business magnate, progenitor of the Astor family of New York</p><br>
<p>John Jacob Astor III (1822–1890), financier and philanthropist</p><br>
<p>John Jacob Astor IV (1864–1912), millionaire killed in the sinking of the Titanic</p><br>
<p>John Jacob Astor VI (1912–1992), shipping magnate</p><br>
<p>William Backhouse Astor, Sr. (1792–1875), real estate businessman</p><br>
<p>William Backhouse Astor, Jr. (1829–1892), businessman and race horse breeder/owner</p><br>
<p>John James Audubon (1785–1851), ornithologist and naturalist</p><br>
<p>Estelle Bennett (1941–2009), member of the 1960s girl group The Ronettes</p><br>
<p>John Romeyn Brodhead (1814–1873) Historian of early colonial New York</p><br>
<p>John Winthrop Chanler (1826–1877), United States Congressman</p><br>
<p>William Astor Chanler (1867–1934), United States Congressman</p><br>
<p>William Augustus Darling (1817–1895), United States Congressman</p><br>
<p>James De Lancey (1703–1760), Colonial Governor of New York</p><br>
<p>Alfred D&#39;Orsay Tennyson Dickens (1845–1912), lecturer on the life of his father, Charles Dickens</p><br>
<p>John Adams Dix, (1798–1879) soldier, United States Senator, Secretary of the Treasury, Governor of New York, statesman</p><br>
<p>Ralph Waldo Ellison, (1914–1994), author and educator</p><br>
<p>Madeleine Talmage Force (1893–1940), socialite, Titanic survivor</p><br>
<p>Cuba Gooding Sr. (1944–2017), singer and actor</p><br>
<p>Edward Haight (1817–1885), United States Congressman</p><br>
<p>Abraham Oakey Hall (1826–1898), Mayor of New York City</p><br>
<p>Eliza Jumel (1775–1865), second wife of Aaron Burr</p><br>
<p>Edward I. Koch (1924–2013), Mayor of New York City (1978-1989)</p><br>
<p>James Monroe (1799–1870), USA Congressman</p><br>
<p>Clement Clarke Moore (1779–1863), clergyman, attributed author of Christmas poem A Visit from St. Nicholas</p><br>
<p>Hercules Mulligan (1740-1825), spy during the American Revolution, friend of Alexander Hamilton.</p><br>
<p>Jerry Orbach (1935–2004), actor</p><br>
<p>Caroline Webster Schermerhorn (1830–1908), socialite</p><br>
<p>Samuel Seabury (1873–1958), New York City Judge</p><br>
<p>Stephanie St. Clair (1886–1969), Harlem crime boss</p><br>
<p>Ava Lowle Willing, Lady Ribblesdale (1868-1958), socialite</p><br>
<p>Fernando Wood (1812–1881), Mayor of New York City</p><br>
<h3>Churchyard of St. Paul's Chapel</h3><br>
<p>George Frederick Cooke (1756–1812), actor</p><br>
<p>Richard Coote, 1st Earl of Bellomont (1636–1701), British colonial governor</p><br>
<p>John Holt (1721–1784), publisher</p><br>
<p>William Houstoun (1755–1813), Continental Congress delegate for whom Houston Street was named</p><br>
<p>Richard Montgomery (1738–1775) Major General in the Continental Army during the American Revolution</p><br>
<p>Stephen Rochefontaine (died 1798), Continental Army officer during the American Revolution</p><br>
<p>Ma Wan is an island of Hong Kong, located between Lantau Island and Tsing Yi Island, with an area of 0.97 km&sup2;. Administratively, it is part of Tsuen Wan District.</p><br>
<p>The Lantau Link that passes through Ma Wan was constructed in the mid-1990s as part of the Hong Kong Government&#39;s Rose Garden plan to connect the new Hong Kong International Airport to the city centre. Its development fostered plans to develop the island. Today, a large part of Ma Wan is occupied by the Park Island apartment complex. A theme park, named Ma Wan Park was built to accompany the housing project, with its first phase opened on 1 July 2007.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Ma Wan has an area of 0.97 km&sup2;. Two channels separate Ma Wan and other major islands.</p><br>
<p>to the east is the Ma Wan Channel, separating it from Tsing Yi Island. The channel is crossed by the Tsing Ma Bridge.</p><br>
<p>to the southwest is Kap Shui Mun, separating it from the Tsing Chau Tsai Peninsula of Lantau Island. The channel is crossed by the Kap Shui Mun Bridge.</p><br>
<p>the north seafront is opposite Tsing Lung Tau on the mainland Tsuen Wan District, part of the New Territories.</p><br>
<p>The south faces the small Tang Lung Chau island.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Ma Wan surface rocks are mostly volcanic rocks called Yim Tin Tsai Formation. This is a coarse ash crystal tuff containing lapilli.</p><br>
<p>Some layers of fine volcanic ash are found in the far north of the island. The contained mafic minerals are biotite and amphibole. The tuff contains mostly quartz and alkali and plagioclase feldspar. Other minerals include apatite, magnetite, monazite and zircon.</p><br>
<p>The Ma Wan granite is fine grained. It contains microcline, and few feldspar phenocrysts. The main minerals are quartz, perthitic orthoclase, and plagioclase. The dark mineral is mostly biotite. Also contained is zircon, fluorite, and allanite. It is found on the south of the east coast.</p><br>
<p>Dykes formed later with a mafic dyke injected first followed by a felsic material. A feldsparphyric dyke crosses the island east-west near the ferry pier.</p><br>
<p>Several Cenozoic age quartzphyric rhyolite dykes cross the island. These are also injected with narrow dacitic dykes, and last of all very fine grained mafic basaltic dykes.</p><br>
<p>A north east trending fault crosses Ma Wan from the typhoon shelter on the west side to the Tun Wan. The island is separated from Lantau Island by a fault under the channel called the Kap Shui Mun Fault. This is angled to the North West, and has its direction controlled by the major tectonic zone it is in called the Linhua Shan Fault System that extends from the coast of Guangdong to Fujian.</p><br>
<p>Prominent joints are at 85° parallel to the dykes. Other joints are close to horizontal, can cause rocks to form sheets.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Remains have been found from the Mid-Neolithic Age (about 3000 BC), the late Neolithic Age (about 2000 BC), the early to late Bronze Age of coastal South China (1500-500 BC), the Tang Dynasty (618-917 AD) and the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911 AD).</p><br>
<p>Complete Neolithic human skeletal remains were found in tombs at Tung Wan Tsai in 1997. (Ref. The Antiquities and Monuments Office of the Home Affairs Bureau)</p><br>
<p>The prehistoric island had late neolithic inhabitants as proved by recent excavations. There were also inhabitants here during the Han Dynasty. More recently in the last 250 years it was a small fishing village named Tin Liu, only accessible by boats or ferries. It was founded by a Chan family from Tsing Yi island.</p><br>
<p>Ma Wan once had a Customs house, still recorded by a stone monument named "Kowloon Gate" monument. (near the old Rural Committee building). It ceased activity on 4 October 1899.</p><br>
<p>Foreign visitors first arrived on the island in 1794.</p><br>
<p>24 housing units were donated and built by the United States in 1965, built on a top of a hill near the Fishermen&#39;s Association.</p><br>
<p>In the early 1970s, the island across from Ma Wan was occupied by three families. Their family names were Woo, Pang, and Woo. The children of these families attended the kindergarten and Fong Yuen School in Ma Wan. Water transportation to Ma Wan was signaled by waving a flag at the pier. The Woo family sustained a living by fishing and creating baskets. The Pang family sustained a living by raising chickens and ducks.</p><br>
<p>As of 1995, fish farming was the predominant economic activity on Ma Wan.</p><br>
<p>Ma Wan had a population of 800 in 2000. With the development of the Park Island apartment complex, villagers were rehoused in the northern part of the island. As part of the compensation package, they could choose either a 3-storey traditional village house of 2,100 ft2 or 3 separate units, each of 700 ft2 in one single block.</p><br>
<h2>Features</h2><br>
<h3>Park Island</h3><br>
<p>Park Island is a private housing estate that was mainly developed by Sun Hung Kai Properties as part of the Ma Wan Development joint venture project and completed from 2002 to 2006 in six phases.</p><br>
<h3>Villages</h3><br>
<p>Ma Wan Town, also known as Ma Wan Main Street Village, is a former fishing village with stilt houses (pang uk). It has been vacated.</p><br>
<p>250-year-old village, quite empty —The new Tin Liu Village has been built a bit on top of it.</p><br>
<p>The new villages are:</p><br>
<p>Ma Wan Main Street Village Central</p><br>
<p>Ma Wan Main Street Village East</p><br>
<p>Ma Wan Main Street Village South</p><br>
<p>Ma Wan Main Street Village</p><br>
<p>Tin Liu New Village</p><br>
<h3>Leisure</h3><br>
<p>Ma Wan Park</p><br>
<p>The Heritage Centre in Ma Wan Park exhibits the evolution of the island since Neolithic to nowadays, includes a Tang Dynasty mud kiln and a Qing Dynasty brick kiln found on Ma Wan, and replicas of the late Neolithic skeletons.</p><br>
<p>Noah&#39;s Ark Museum in Ma Wan Park</p><br>
<p>Ma Wan Tung Wan Beach is managed by the Leisure and Cultural Services Department.</p><br>
<h3>Religion</h3><br>
<p>Annual traditional festivals, such as Tin Hau.</p><br>
<p>There are two Tin Hau Temples on Ma Wan. One has been rebuilt on the northern beach and is said to have been originally built by the local pirate Cheung Po Tsai, who often looked after the locals. Another one is located at the Ma Wan Main Street Village.</p><br>
<p>Ma Wan Alliance Church</p><br>
<h3>Education</h3><br>
<p>Kei Wai Primary School</p><br>
<h3>Culture</h3><br>
<p>Cantonese Opera productions.</p><br>
<p>Local production of the shrimp paste "habe"</p><br>
<p>Fong Yuen Study Hall, formerly the Chan Study Hall, was first built by the Chan clan of Tin Liu before the 1900s. The Chan Study Hall was rebuilt with Western influence and renamed as "Fong Yuen Study Hall", literally meaning a nice place for study, in the 1920s to 30s. (See Revitalising Historic Buildings Through Partnership Scheme)</p><br>
<h3>Others</h3><br>
<p>Clear water wells</p><br>
<p>Deep waters (for Hong Kong) surrounding - 30 m</p><br>
<p>Popular photography site.</p><br>
<p>Small red crabs.</p><br>
<p>Cemetery on the south side.</p><br>
<p>The Salvation Army Ma Wan Youth Camp</p><br>
<h3>Infrastructure</h3><br>
<p>Tsing Ma Bridge, world&#39;s longest span suspension bridge carrying both road and railway traffic. Tsing Ma Bridge+ Ma Wan Viaduct + Kap Shui Mun Bridge together link Tsing Yi island to Lantau island and form the Lantau Link.</p><br>
<p>Park Island Ferry Pier</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<h3>Road</h3><br>
<p>Although the Hong Kong government originally claimed it would be "physically impossible" to give the island a road connection via the Lantau Link, this was disproved with the beginning of construction of Park Island. The island is now connected to Tsing Yi by the Tsing Ma Bridge (a suspension bridge), and to Lantau Island by the Kap Shui Mun Bridge (a cable-stayed bridge). Both bridges are part of the Lantau Link.</p><br>
<p>Park Island Transport Co., Ltd. operates bus services from Park Island to Tsing Yi MTR Station, Kwai Fong Metroplaza, Hong Kong International Airport and Tsuen Wan (close to the Tsuen Wan MTR station).</p><br>
<p>Starting from 3 July 2008, urban taxi were permitted access into Ma Wan during between 8pm and 7am the following morning to meet residents&#39; transport needs. Starting from 14 December 2012, urban taxi were permitted access into Ma Wan 24 hours daily.</p><br>
<p>Private vehicles are generally not permitted to enter the island, an arrangement which also exists in Discovery Bay on the nearby Lantau Island; however a permit can be requested from the Transport Department of Hong Kong. Minibuses are not allowed, but the Park Island management company operates cars in case of emergency or special situations, though their availability is not guaranteed. Lorries may enter the island between 10am to 4pm daily without the need for a special permit.</p><br>
<h3>Water</h3><br>
<p>There are several ferry piers on the island: Park Island Ferry Pier on the northeast, one on the old Tin Liu village on the west (formerly hosting Sham Tseng ferries), Man Wan Public Pier on the southwest at Ma Wan Main Street Village, Tai Pai Tsui Pier on the south of the island facing Tang Lung Chau, one on the north of the island used for the garbage removal, one on the southeast side (but on a Government land not open).</p><br>
<p>Park Island Transport Co., Ltd. operates ferry services between Park Island and Central Piers (Pier 2). Another route to Tsuen Wan Pier (near West Rail Tsuen Wan West Station) was discontinued on 13 December 2012 after 10 years of operation.</p><br>
<p>Chek Lap Kok is an island in the western waters of Hong Kong. Unlike the smaller Lam Chau, it was only partially leveled and merged via land reclamation into the 12.48 km&sup2; island for the current Hong Kong International Airport, which opened for commercial aviation in 1998. The airport is popularly referred to as Chek Lap Kok Airport to distinguish it from the former Hong Kong International Airport .</p><br>
<p>Hong Kong SkyCity, a business and entertainment complex, is also located on Chek Lap Kok. It includes AsiaWorld-Expo, a convention and exhibition centre, which opened in 2005. Cathay Pacific City, the head office of Cathay Pacific, and the head offices of Dragonair and Hong Kong Airlines are also located on the airport platform.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The name of the island may be derived from the bareness of the island (da chek lak), that the shape of the island resembles the red tripletail Perch (chek lap, 赤鱲), or that the fish was once abundant in its vicinity.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The island is located north of Lantau Island off Ma Wan Chung and Tung Chung. Before the building of the airport platform, it was a small and hilly island, about 4 km long, with an area of 3.02 km&sup2; (other sources mention 2.8 km&sup2;). The southern end of the island formed a small peninsula, which has been left largely undeveloped. This area is facing Tung Chung and is now named "Scenic Hill". It is the site of the Ancient Kiln Park and the Airport Island Angle Station of the Ngong Ping 360 cable car.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The island has been inhabited on and off since the Middle Neolithic period 6,000 years ago.</p><br>
<p>During the 19th and 20th centuries, the inhabitants of the island practiced farming, including rice cultivation, and quarrying. Their population was about 200 in the 1950s, raising sharply in the 1960s. It later declined, with some 20 families remaining on the island when the plan for the construction of a new airport was announced in the early 1990s.</p><br>
<p>Archeological surveys and investigations were conducted on the island starting in the late 1970s. A salvage archaeology project started on October 15, 1990.</p><br>
<p>The original farming and fishing villages on the island were relocated to Chek Lap Kok Village (赤鱲角村) near Tung Chung on Lantau Island. A Tin Hau Temple had been built in 1823 at the north east of the island. The entire temple was built of granite quarried on the island. It was dismantled in 1991 and rebuilt in 1994 at its present location.</p><br>
<p>Also, Romer&#39;s Tree Frog (Philautus romeri), a unique species of finger-sized frog found only in Hong Kong, was relocated from Chek Lap Kok to new habitats on Lantau Island before construction of the airport.</p><br>
<p>Banaba Island , an island in the Pacific Ocean, is a solitary raised coral island west of the Gilbert Island chain and 185 mi east of Nauru. It is part of the Republic of Kiribati. It has an area of 6.0 km², and the highest point on the island is also the highest point in Kiribati, at 81 metres  high. Along with Nauru and Makatea , it is one of the important elevated phosphate-rich islands of the Pacific.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>According to "Te Rii Ni Banaba&mdash;The Backbone of Banaba" by Raobeia Ken Sigrah, Banaban oral history supports the claim that the people of the Te Aka clan, which originated in Melanesia, were the original inhabitants of Banaba (Ocean Island), having arrived before the arrival of later migrations from the East Indies and Kiribati. The name Banaba in the local Gilbertese language is correctly spelled Bwanaba, but the Constitution of 12 July 1979 writes Banaba, meaning "hollow land".</p><br>
<p>Sigrah makes the controversial (and politically loaded) assertion that Banabans are ethnically distinct from other I-Kiribati. The Banabans were assimilated only through forced migrations and the impact of the discovery of phosphate in 1900. There used to be four villages on the island - Ooma (Uma), Tabiang, Tapiwa (Tabwewa), and Buakonikai. The local capital was Tabiang, now called Antereen.</p><br>
<p>The first European sighting of Banaba occurred on 3 January 1801. Captain Jared Gardner in the American vessel Diana sighted the island. Then in 1804, Captain John Mertho of the convict transport and merchant ship Ocean sighted the island and named it after his vessel.</p><br>
<p>Banaba is prone to drought, as it is a high island with no natural streams and no water lens. A three-year drought starting in 1873 killed over three quarters of the population and wiped out almost all the trees; many of those who survived left the island on passing ships to escape the drought, and only some were able to return, often years later.</p><br>
<p>The Pacific Islands Company, under John T. Arundel, identified that the petrified guano on Banaba consisted of high grade Phosphate rock.The agreement made with the Banabans was for the exclusive right to mine for 999 years for £50 a year. The terms of the licenses were changed to provide for the payment of royalties and compensation for mining damage.</p><br>
<p>The Pacific Phosphate Company (PPC) mined the phosphate from 1900 to 1919. In 1913 an anonymous correspondent to The New Age criticised the operation of the PPC under the title "Modern buccaneers in the West Pacific". In 1919 the governments of the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand took over the operations of the Pacific Phosphate Company. The Phosphate rock-mining (for fertiliser), which was carried out from 1900 to 1979, stripped away 90% of the island&#39;s surface, the same process which occurred on Nauru from 1907 to the 1980s.</p><br>
<p>Japanese forces occupied the island from 26 August 1942 until the end of World War II in 1945. The British authorities relocated most of the population to Rabi Island, Fiji after 1945, with subsequent waves of emigration in 1977 and 1981-1983. Some have subsequently returned, following the end of mining in 1979; approximately 300 were living on the island in 2001. The population of Banaba in the 2010 census was 295. Globally, there are an estimated 6000 individuals of Banaban descent. On Rabi Island the names of settlements are the same authentic four names from Banaba Island.</p><br>
<p>Ocean Island Post Office opened on 1 January 1911 and was renamed Banaba around 1979.</p><br>
<p>In the 1970s the Banabans sued in the Court of England and Wales claiming that the UK Crown owed a fiduciary duty to the islanders when fixing the royalty payments and the difference in proper rates should be paid. In Tito v Waddell (No 2) Ch 106, Sir Robert Megarry VC held that no fiduciary duties were owed, because the term "trust" in the Mining Ordinance 1927 was not used in the technical sense, but rather in the sense of an unenforceable government obligation. The claim for the beach to be restored, from the 1948 agreement, was now time barred. The replanting obligations under the 1913 agreement was binding, but also it was limited to what was reasonably practicable.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The woodland of Banaba is now limited to the coastal area and is made up mostly of mangoes, flame trees, guavas, tapioca and common Kiribati shrubs such as the saltbush. Having been mined for over 80 years, the centre of the island has no soil and is uninhabitable.</p><br>
<p>The villages of Tabiang (Antereen), Buakonikai (‘Te Aonoanne’) and Tabwewa are now unoccupied. Banaba had three inhabited villages in the 2010 census; Tabwewa, Antereen (also called Tabiang) and Umwa.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>Banaba Island features a tropical rainforest climate, under Köppen&#39;s climate classification. Winds between north-east and south-east bring rainfall with large annual and seasonal variability. The period of lowest mean monthly rainfall starts in May and lasts until November. From December until April the monthly rainfall is on average higher than 120 mm.Burgess, S.M., The climate and weather of Western Kiribati, NZ Meteorological</p><br>
<p>Service, Misc. Publ. 188(7), 1987, Wellington.</p><br>
<h2>Politics</h2><br>
<p>Banaba Island is a political anomaly. Despite being part of Kiribati, its municipal administration is by the Rabi Council of Leaders and Elders, which is based on Rabi Island, in Fiji.</p><br>
<p>On 19 December 2005, Teitirake Corrie, the Rabi Island Councils representative to the Parliament of Kiribati, said that the Rabi Council was considering giving the right to remine Banaba Island to the government of Fiji. This followed the disappointment of the Rabi Islanders at the refusal of the Kiribati Parliament to grant a portion of the A$614 million trust fund from phosphate proceeds to elderly Rabi islanders. Corrie asserted that Banaba is the property of their descendants who live on Rabi, not of the Kiribati government, asserting that, "The trust fund also belongs to us even though we do not live in Kiribati". He condemned the Kiribati governments policy of not paying the islanders.</p><br>
<p>On 23 December, Reteta Rimon, Kiribati&#39;s High Commissioner to Fiji, clarified that Rabi Islanders were, in fact, entitled to Kiribati government benefits - but only if they returned to Kiribati. She called for negotiations between the Rabi Council of Leaders and the Kiribati government.</p><br>
<p>On 1 January 2006, Corrie called for Banaba to secede from Kiribati and join Fiji. Kiribati was using Banaban phosphate money for its own enrichment, he said; of the five thousand Banabans in Fiji, there were fewer than one hundred aged seventy or more who would be claiming pensions.</p><br>
<h2>Future prospects</h2><br>
<p>The stated wish of the Kiribati government to reopen mining on Banaba is strongly opposed by many in the Banaban diaspora.</p><br>
<p>Some of the leaders of the displaced Banaban community in Fiji have called for Banaba to be granted independence. One reason given for the maintenance of a community on Banaba, at a monthly cost of F$12,000, is that if the island were to become uninhabited, the Kiribati government might take over the administration of the island, and integrate it with the rest of the country. Kiribati is believed to be anxious to retain Banaba, in the hope of remining it in the future. Additionally, along with Kiritimati, it is a low-lying coral atoll and less susceptible to rising sea levels.</p><br>
<h2>Further information</h2><br>
<p>Correspondent. (1913, 5 June). "Modern buccaneers in the West Pacific". The New Age, pp. 136–140 (Online). Available: (accessed 12 June 2015).</p><br>
<p>Treasure Islands: The Trials of the Ocean Islanders by Pearl Binder (published by Blond & Briggs in 1977), an emotional account of the Banaban&#39;s troubles.</p><br>
<p>Go Tell It to the Judge, a TV documentary by the BBC on the court case brought by the Banabans in London. It was first broadcast on January 6, 1977, shortly after judgement was reached.</p><br>
<p>An account of the Banaban&#39;s struggle with the British Phosphate Commission and the British government, as of 1985, can be found in the book On Fiji Islands by Canadian author Ronald Wright. This also contains descriptions of Rabi Island, to which the majority of Banabans were removed after World War II.</p><br>
<p>Grass Island or Tap Mun is an island in Hong Kong, located in the northeastern part of the territory. Its area is 1.69 km². Administratively, it is part of the Tai Po District. There are about 100 people living on the island, and feral cattles are known on the island.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>Grass Island is located in the northeastern part of the Hong Kong territory, between Mirs Bay and the North Channel. It lies north of the Sai Kung East Country Park on the Sai Kung Peninsula. To the east is Kung Chau, to the south is the South Channel, to the west is Wan Tsai and to the southwest is Long Harbour.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>A tablet in the Tin Hau Temple on the island states Tap Mun, as part of Mirs Bay, was registered under the administration of the Dongguan County by the Tsui and Yip clans before 1573 and that they thus held the subsoil rights as taxpayer under the Customary Land Law. By the late 17th century, Tanka fisherman began to use the anchorage and built the temple, the topsoil rights being granted to them in perpetuity by the subsoil title holders. As a result of a dispute over the land that arose in the mid-18th century, the Magistrate and Prefect of the Dongguan County Court ruled that the Customary Land Law took precedence over the Imperial Law, thus preserving the subsoil:topsoil rights status quo (including the rule that, though the tax-paid land area of the subsoil holder was only the temple itself and its immediately vicinity, the rights of the topsoil holders extended automatically to all adjoining waste and mountainous land, i.e. the entire island). Over time, the first topsoil holder&#39;s interest in the land will have passed to an ancestral trust of his family so that by the time of British colonial rule, the effective title holders in the topsoil will have been a trust of the villagers as a whole. The British refused to recognise all subsoil rights (their taxpaying status to the Imperial government being at odds with British sovereignty and its Crown land concept), leaving the only effective right in the land in the hands of the tenant topsoil rights holders, i.e. the village ancestral trust of the Tanka families.</p><br>
<p>By the 1960s, the Tankas were living in wretched conditions on the island and, in response to their need, a charity from New Zealand funded the erection of a New Village to house them. The structures, considered an eyesore but functional, were completed in 1964 and continued in use as of 2016.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>At its peak, Grass Island had 2,000 residents. However, many moved to the city centre to live. Now many residents run stores or restaurants for local tourists visiting the island. The villagers are mostly farmers, merchants or fishermen. The latter category has recently diminished as many youths from fishing families have chosen to work in the city instead. Due to the population outflow, the last school on the island closed down in 2003.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<h2>Attractions</h2><br>
<h3>Camping</h3><br>
<p>The hilltop of Grass Island is a popular camping site, renowned for the contrast in temperature and wind conditions between day and night. Temperatures drop and winds soar during the nighttime but die down as the day approaches, when the dawn marks the beginning of a temperature rise. It is also well known for providing panoramic views of the surrounding seas, and so provides a brief escape away from busy city life. The very gentle slopes of the hilltops are a favourite amongst campers, although there is the danger of the bordering cliffs.</p><br>
<h3>Temples</h3><br>
<p>The temple complex at Grass Island comprises three temples in two buildings: the first building is a Tin Hau Temple, built in 1737, to which an annex was later added, housing a Kwan Tai Temple. To its south, Shui Yuet Kung, built in 1788, is dedicated to Kwun Yam (Guan Yin) and the Earth God. The Tin Hau Temple is a Grade II historic building, while Shui Yuet Kung is listed as Grade III.</p><br>
<p>On festival days, such as Kwun Yam&#39;s birthday, on the 19th day of the second lunar month, many fishermen arrive at Grass Island to pray for peace and calm. The Tin Hau Festival is celebrated annually on the 23rd day of the third lunar month. In addition, a marine parade is held once every ten years to celebrate the Tin Hau Festival. The temple at Grass Island is one of the two Tin Hau Temples in Hong Kong that have such a marine parade: the other one is the Tin Hau Temple on Leung Shuen Wan (High Island).</p><br>
<h3>Dining</h3><br>
<p>There is one seafood restaurant and a number of small tea restaurants on the Grass Island, many of which are known for ice-less ice-cold milk tea and boiled squid dishes. Some fishermen of Grass Island make a living by selling their sun-dried catch. Sun-dried fish and shrimp are popular amongst local tourists.</p><br>
<h3>Other attractions</h3><br>
<p>Tap Mun Cave</p><br>
<p>Layered Rock</p><br>
<p>King Lam School was founded before 1913 and was originally housed in the Tin Hau Temple. A dedicated school building with three classrooms was built on the hill in 1957. The school closed in the summer of 2003, due to the low number of students. It is now a Grade III historic building.</p><br>
<p>Ngau See Dong, the grave site of a resident buffalo. The skeletal remains of the decomposed buffalo was a spooky sight as it was situated right next to a frequently walked stone path. Although now removed by local officials, the site can still be identified as an unnatural depression into the border of surrounding shrubs.</p><br>
<p>The Environmental Protection Department has an Air Pollution Index monitoring station on the island.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Grass Island is served by Tsui Wah Ferry Service. The ferry/kai-to services are available from:</p><br>
<p>Wong Shek Pier in Sai Kung; about once every two hours, with higher frequency on weekends and holidays.</p><br>
<p>Ma Liu Shui Pier near Chinese University in Tai Po; twice daily, with an extra departure on weekends and holidays.</p><br>
<p>Ap Lei Chau, formerly Aberdeen Island, is an island of Hong Kong, located off Hong Kong Island, next to Aberdeen Harbour and Aberdeen Channel, with an area of 1.30 km&sup2;. Administratively, it is part of Southern District. Ap Lei Chau is the second most densely populated island in the world.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>On a map dating from the Ming dynasty, the island is shown, together with a village with the name "Heung Kong Tsuen", the literal meaning of which in Chinese is "Fragrant Harbour Village" (香港村). This is probably the origin of the name "Hong Kong".</p><br>
<p>Before the First Opium War, Ap Lei Chau was essentially a fishing village. As a consequence of the Treaty of Nanking, it was in 1841 ceded to the British together with Hong Kong Island.</p><br>
<p>Since then, little attention had been paid to this small island, although Ap Lei Chau does shelter Aberdeen Harbour, creating an excellent natural typhoon shelter.</p><br>
<p>In 1968, Hongkong Electric opened a power station on Ap Lei Chau to provide electricity for the whole of Hong Kong Island. In 1980 and 1994, a bridge was constructed to connect the island to the Hong Kong Island, and this created momentum for rapid economic development. Public housing estates were built to accommodate people, including some who had suffered in a fire in the Aberdeen shelter.</p><br>
<p>In 1989, the generators of the power station were relocated to Lamma Island, and the old power station was demolished. The site was re-developed into the South Horizons residential area, with the addition of some land reclaimed from the sea.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and demographics</h2><br>
<p>Ap Lei Chau was named after the shape of the island, which resembles the tongue of a duck. Ap means duck, Lei means tongue, and Chau means island. The northern part has the highest population, while the southern part of the island is less densely populated.</p><br>
<p>The highest point on the island is Yuk Kwai Shan (玉桂山; aka. Mount Johnston), with an altitude of 196 m.</p><br>
<p>It comprises four main residential estates &mdash; Lei Tung Estate, Main Street, Ap Lei Chau, Ap Lei Chau Estate, each of which comprises several highrise towers. There is an industrial estate on the southern tip of the island.</p><br>
<p>The population of Ap Lei Chau is 86,782, and its area is 1.30 km², giving it a population density of 66,755 people / km², and making it the second most densely populated island in the world.</p><br>
<p>Ap Lei Chau also lends its name to the Ap Lei Chau geologic formation, which covers most of Hong Kong Island.</p><br>
<h2>Places of interest</h2><br>
<p>The Hung Shing Temple located on Hung Shing Street, off Main Street, Ap Lei Chau, is a notable site. Dating back to 1773, it is the oldest temple in the Aberdeen and Ap Lei Chau areas and is a declared monument.</p><br>
<p>The Shui Yuet Temple aka. Kwun Yum Temple is located at No. 181 Main Street, Ap Lei Chau. Dedicated to Guan Yin, it was built at the end of the 19th century and is a Grade III historic building. The temple site is adjacent the site of the former Aberdeen police station. Clearly chosen for its feng shui, the superior dragons were seen as being protection from the threat of the tigers jaw&#39; from the police station. Although the police station has now been demolished, the dragons are still present and seen as enduring feng shui guards.</p><br>
<p>The island is known for being the location of 8th Estate Winery, the first winery in Hong Kong.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Ap Lei Chau and Hong Kong Island are connected by the four lane Ap Lei Chau road bridge. Opened in 1983, it originally only had two lanes, and was widened to four in 1994.</p><br>
<p>Buses are the main form of transport for the residents in Ap Lei Chau. There are five bus termini in total on the island:</p><br>
<p>Ap Lei Chau Estate</p><br>
<p>Ap Lei Chau Industrial Estate</p><br>
<p>Ap Lei Chau Main Street</p><br>
<p>Lei Tung Estate</p><br>
<p>South Horizons</p><br>
<p>Green minibuses and taxis are available.</p><br>
<p>There is a regular sampan service running between Ap Lei Chau Main Street and Aberdeen. (Service hours: 6am-12am)</p><br>
<p>The MTR South Island Line opened on December 28, 2016 and it links the Admiralty of Hong Kong Island to Ap Lei Chau by Aberdeen Channel Bridge. There are two stations on the island: Lei Tung (for Lei Tung Estate and Ap Lei Chau Main street) and South Horizons (for South Horizons, Ap Lei Chau Estate and Ap Lei Chau Industrial Estate) serving the development of the same name.</p><br>
<p>Tai A Chau is an uninhabited island of Hong Kong, part of the Soko Islands group, located south of Lantau Island. It is referred to as South Soko Island in some media articles.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>With an area of 1.2 km², Tai A Chau is the largest of the Soko Islands. It is located 4.5 km to the south of Lantau Island and about 2 km north of the boundary of the Hong Kong territorial waters. The island has small hills with heights ranging from 85m to 154m. Its coastline is mainly steeply sloped and rocky in nature.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>There were historically two villages on the island: Ha Tsuen and Sheung Tsuen on the west and south sides of the island. The villagers left in the 1980s, when a detention camp for Vietnamese refugees was built. Tai A Chau Detention Centre was home to thousands of Vietnamese refugees from 1991 to 1996. The centre was closed prior to the handover in 1997 and all the building structures were demolished.</p><br>
<h2>Features</h2><br>
<p>The island has a temple dedicated to Tin Hau and seven earth shrines.</p><br>
<p>Two helicopter landing pads and a small jetty remain from the island&#39;s former detention centre.</p><br>
<p>Tung Ping Chau is an island in Hong Kong. It was known as Ping Chau. Tung  is prepended to the name so as to avoid possible confusion with Peng Chau, another island in Hong Kong with an identically pronounced name in the Cantonese language. Administratively, the island is part of the Tai Po District in the New Territories.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Geographically, Ping Chau is an offshore island located in the northeast corner of Hong Kong in Mirs Bay, close to the border with Guangdong Province in mainland China. The island has an area of 1.16 km² and consists of shale rock. The island is the most easterly point of the Hong Kong territory and is much closer to mainland China (4 km) than to the main landmass of Hong Kong. It is close to Nan&#39;ao of Dapeng.</p><br>
<p>The island has the shape of a kidney bean with its concave side facing northeast. Its name "Ping Chau" means "flat island" in Chinese. The highest points on the island are 48 m in the south and 37 m in the north. The eastern inner shore of the crescent hugs Ping Chau Hoi (平洲海) with a few beaches, including Cheung Sha Wan (長沙灣) in the northeast. In contrast, the western coast of the island is fairly rocky as a result of the greater wave action taking its toll on the inclined siltstone there.</p><br>
<p>The island&#39;s largest village, Sha Tau (沙頭), is something of a ghost town, with many cottages boarded up. A large part of the island is country parkland, with footpaths overgrown with orchids, wild mint, and morning glories.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Ping Chau has a checkered history. Guns and opium were once smuggled from here, and during the Cultural Revolution many mainlanders swam in hopes of reaching Ping Chau and the freedom of Hong Kong.</p><br>
<p>The now virtually deserted island was once home to a thriving fishing and farm community of 3,000 people, Historical villages of Ping Chau included the five oldest: Chau Mei (洲尾), Chau Tau (洲頭), Nai Tau (奶頭), Sha Tau (沙頭) and Tai Tong (大塘), as well as five other smaller family villages, which were subsequently developed: Chan Uk (陳屋), Lam Uk (林屋), Lei Uk (李屋), Tsau Uk (鄒屋) and Tsoi Uk (蔡屋). The village of Chau Mei was settled by fishermen who sold their catch at Tai Po Market and at Shayuchong (沙魚涌), a coastal village now part of the Longgang District of Shenzhen.</p><br>
<p>During the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong (1941-1945), Ping Chau was used as a logistics base for the supply of military resources, including petrol, to the Chinese army. Several allied military leaders were transported to the mainland via the island.</p><br>
<p>In the 1950s, there were about 1,500 people living in the ten villages on the island. At that time, the economy of the island deteriorated due to the depletion of fishery resources and the termination of trade with the mainland as a consequence of the Korean War (1950-1953). By the early 1970s, only a few elderly people remained on the island. In 2004, the last permanent resident moved out of Tung Ping Chau. Some may return on weekends. In 2013, the District Offices estimated that Tung Ping Chau had a population of 8.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Ping Chau is unique in the fact that it is the only sizeable island in Hong Kong made up of sedimentary rock. Hong Kong is mostly formed of extrusive igneous rocks, after a series of major volcanoes erupted during the Jurassic Period. Following the volcanic activity, a basin formed in the northeast, with deposition in a brackish lake—producing the siltstones and chert of Tung Ping Chau, which have been dated from the early Paleogene period. It is also home to some spectacular cliffs and wave-cut platforms. Landforms such as these are very rarely found in the rest of Hong Kong.</p><br>
<p>Cham Keng Chau (斬頸洲, "Chop Neck Islet"), in the northwest, is a chunk of land that has broken away from the island; the Chinese say it represents the head of a dragon. Another notable rock formation is Lung Lok Shui (龍落水, "Dragon Descend into Water"), on the southwestern coast, thus named because it resembles the spine of a dragon entering the sea. At the islands southeastern end are two large rocks known as the Drum Rocks, or Kang Lau Shek (更樓石, "Watchmans Tower Rocks"). They are 7 to 8 m sea stacks on a wave-cut platform. Lan Kwo Shui (難過水, "Difficult-to-cross Waters") features a long vertical cliff located along the southern coast, where several caves were formed there as a result of long term wave actions. Lan Kwo Shui can be reached by foot from Kang Lau Shek, at low tide and in calm sea conditions.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>The island has a temple dedicated to Tin Hau, built in 1765, and a temple dedicated to Tam Kung: the Tam Tai Sin Temple (譚大仙廟), built before 1877. Both temples are located in the village of Sha Tau. Many early residents of Ping Chau were from Shantou (Swatow) and they kept the tradition of worshiping Tam Kung after they settled on the island. Several other old buildings can be found on the island.</p><br>
<p>The island even had their own dialect, the Ping Chao dialect. Nowadays no longer spoken by many, you may still hear this dialect in the conversations between the villagers inside the restaurants.</p><br>
<p>On one side of the island there are steep cliffs, below which is an amazing wave-cut platform, with jagged rocks, set at a 30-degree angle, like a staircase. Here there are many rock pools containing all manner of marine life, such as sea urchins and crabs. On the island&#39;s coastline at the pier side, there are over 60 different species of coral, and 35 species of algae.</p><br>
<p>During the weekends, there are many people on the island. These include those who have come to dive, and those who have come to see the cliffs and wave-cut platforms. Some people also use it as a weekend home. 57,000 people visited Ping Chau in 2005.</p><br>
<p>There is a camping site as well as picnic and barbecue sites on the island, managed by the Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department. A few basic restaurants can be found at Tai Tong, a short distance north of Tung Ping Chau Public Pier. Basic dorms are available at Tai Tong Wan (大塘灣) and A Ma Wan (亞媽灣).</p><br>
<h2>Conservation</h2><br>
<p>Three buildings of Ping Chau are listed as Grade III Historic Buildings: the Tin Hau Temple, the Tam Tai Sin Temple, both in the village of Sha Tau, and the Old House, built in the 1940s in Chau Mei by Lee</p><br>
<p>Mou-you (李戊有).</p><br>
<p>Ping Chau has been designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest since 1979.</p><br>
<p>With the exception of an area of old villages along its east coast,</p><br>
<p>The Tung Ping Chau Marine Park was designated in 2001 as the fourth Marine Park in Hong Kong. It occupies a sea area of about 270 hectares which encloses the island of Ping Chau.</p><br>
<p>Ping Chau is one of the eight Geo-Areas of the Hong Kong Global Geopark, which was inaugurated in November 2009.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>The island is reachable by ferry from Ma Liu Shui ferry pier, near the Chinese University of Hong Kong. The landing point is the Tung Ping Chau Public Pier (東平洲公眾碼頭), the only public pier on Ping Chau, located near the centre of the island at Wong Ye Kok (王爺角). Improvement works on the pier were completed in 2007. The ferry service is operated by Tsui Wah Ferry Services Co. Ltd on Saturdays, Sundays and public holidays only. The journey takes 1 hour 40 minutes.</p><br>
<p>Tabiteuea, formerly Drummond&#39;s Island, is an atoll in the Gilbert Islands, Kiribati, farther south of the Tarawa Atoll. The atoll consists of two main islands: Eanikai in the north, Nuguti in the south, and several smaller islets in between along the eastern rim of the atoll. The atoll has a total land area of 38 km&sup2, while the lagoon measures 365 km&sup2;. The population numbered 4,899 in 2005.</p><br>
<p>While most atolls of the Gilbert Islands correspond to local government areas governed by island councils, Tabiteuea, like the main atoll Tarawa, is divided into two:</p><br>
<p>Tabiteuea North has a land area of 26 km&sup2; and a population of 3,600, distributed among twelve villages (capital Utiroa)</p><br>
<p>Tabiteuea South has a land area of 12 km&sup2; and a population of 1,299, distributed among six villages (capital Buariki).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>"Tabiteuea" is Gilbertese for "land of no chiefs&quot the island is traditionally egalitarian. In the late 1800s, the two islands were the site of a religious war when the populace of Tabiteuea North converted to Christianity and, led by a man called Kapu who had assembled a "hymn-singing army on a crusade", invaded and conquered Tabiteuea South, which had maintained traditional religious practice.</p><br>
<p>The Battle of Drummonds Island occurred during the United States Exploring Expedition in April 1841 at Tabiteuea, then known as Drummonds Island. After one sailor from sloop USS Peacock, was captured by the islanders, the US party decided on exacting redress for the incident. Twelve islanders were killed in the fighting and others were wounded.</p><br>
<p>During the US Civil War, the Confederate States Navy steamer CSS Shenandoah visited the island on March 23, 1865 in search of United States whalers, but the whalers had fled the area. Captain James Waddell described the islanders as "of copper colour, short of statue, athletic in form, intelligent and docile" and were "without a stitch of clothing".</p><br>
<p>Tabiteuea Post Office opened around 1911 and was renamed Tabiteuea North around 1972. Tabiteuea South Post Office opened on 13 September 1965.</p><br>
<p>The Atlantis Massif is a prominent undersea massif in the North Atlantic Ocean. It is a dome-shaped region approximately 10 mi across and rising about 14,000 ft from the sea floor. It is located at approximately 30°8&#39;N latitude 42°8&#39;W longitude; just east of the intersection of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge with the Atlantis Transform Fault. The highest point of the massif is around 700 m beneath the surface.</p><br>
<p>It is believed that the massif was formed underneath the nearby Mid-Atlantic Ridge, but pulled from underneath the ridge during the movement of the plates, about 1.5 to 2 million years ago. Geologic studies of the massif have indicated that it is not composed of the black basalt typical of the ocean floor, but rather of dense green peridotite usually found in the mantle. The central dome is corrugated and striated in a way that is representative of an exposed ultramafic oceanic core complex.</p><br>
<p>An expedition to the area in 1996 made an important advance in the study of the ocean floor. It found that a steeply sloping detachment fault is associated with the oceanic core complex structure. The dome was caused by mantle material being extruded to the surface. Another expedition discovered the Lost City hydrothermal field near the summit of the ridge in 2000.</p><br>
<p>Another expedition in 2016 targeted this massif, drilling cores (IODP 357 expedition).</p><br>
<p>7, Lok Kalyan Marg    is the official residence and principal workplace of the Prime Minister of India, where he lives and holds most of his official or political meetings. Situated on Lok Kalyan Marg, New Delhi, the official name of the PMs residence complex is Panchavati. It is spread over 12 acres of land, comprising five bungalows in Lutyens Delhi, built in the 1980s, which are PM office-cum-residence zone and security establishment, including one occupied by Special Protection Group  and another being a guest house, though all are collectively called 7, Lok Kalyan Marg. It does not have the Prime Minister’s Office but has a conference room for informal meetings. The entire Lok Kalyan Marg, which lies right across the road, is closed to the public. Rajiv Gandhi was the first Prime Minister to reside at 7 Lok Kalyan Marg in 1984.</p><br>
<p>It does not house the Prime Minister&#39;s Office (PMO), which is located in the South Block of the Secretariat Building, on Raisina Hill nearby in New Delhi, where the Cabinet Secretariat functions. The nearest Delhi Metro station is Lok Kalyan Marg metro station. When a new Prime Minister is nominated his/her original house is for the time being given a security detail and the new office holder is then advised to move in the 7, LKM at the earliest possible date.</p><br>
<p>The current address of the residence came into being in September 2016, following the renaming of the Race Course Road to Lok Kalyan Marg. The house was earlier called 7, Race Course Road, which changed to 7, Lok Kalyan Marg, following the renaming of the road, on which the residence is situated.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Earlier, the Prime Ministers of India lived in their own house or house allotted to them through Parliament allotment by virtue of being an MP. Jawaharlal Nehru took up residence in Teen Murti Bhavan, which used to be the residence of the Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army in British India; it was formerly called Flagstaff House. After Nehru&#39;s death in 1964, the building was converted to the Nehru Memorial Museum & Library.</p><br>
<p>The next Prime Minister of India Lal Bahadur Shastri chose 10 Janpath, where he stayed 1964–1966. It was later allotted to the Congress (I) party, though a part of it became biographical museum, Lal Bhadur Shastri Memorial at 1, Moti Lal Nehru Place (formerly 10 Janpath), adjacent to the complex. The current resident of 10 Janpath is Congress President, Sonia Gandhi.</p><br>
<p>After the assassination of Indira Gandhi at her 1, Safdarjung Road residence garden while going towards neighboring 1, Akbar Road office for an interview on October 31, 1984, it was converted into the Indira Gandhi Memorial Museum. Former Chief Justice of India Sudhi Ranjan Das had previously lived at this address before Mrs. Gandhi.</p><br>
<p>Rajiv Gandhi her son and successor as PM, along with his family, became the first occupant of 7, Lok Kalyan Marg, then called 7, Race Course Road, in 1984. The subsequent Prime Minister V. P. Singh made it into a permanent residence of the Prime Minister. In the 1990s I.K. Gujral and some of his predecessors, used 7, Lok Kalyan Marg as Prime Minister&#39;s Office (PMO).</p><br>
<p>The 14th and current Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi chose 5, Lok Kalyan Marg as his residence as the 7 LKM was being refurbished at that time, after his predecessor Singh had vacated it. 7, Lok Kalyan Marg was chosen as Modi&#39;s office.</p><br>
<p>When V P Singh became the Prime Minister, Ministry of Urban Affairs thought of designating 7 LKM premises occupied by Rajiv Gandhi as the permanent residence-cum-office of Prime Minister to ensure that all successive prime ministers were allotted this on assuming office. A government notification on 30 May 1990, officially designated these bungalows as the official residence of Indian Prime Minister.</p><br>
<p>The current address of the house came into being in September 2016, following the renaming of the Race Course Road to Lok Kalyan Marg. The house was earlier called 7, Race Course Road, which changed to 7, Lok Kalyan Marg, following the renaming of the road, on which the residence is situated.</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>The bungalows of the 7 LKM were originally designed by Robert Tor Russell, who was part of British architect Edwin Lutyens’ team, when he was designing New Delhi in the 1920s and 1930s.</p><br>
<h2>The Bungalows</h2><br>
<p>The 12 acres Prime Ministers residence was built in the 1980s. It does not have his office inside the house, but has a conference room for informal meetings. PMs residence-cum-office and security spread across five bungalows 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9, including 5, Lok Kalyan Marg, the Private Residential Zone for the Prime Minister, though he operates from 7, Lok Kalyan Marg.</p><br>
<p>Bungalow 1, LKM is a helipad for the service of Prime Minister which is being used so since September 2003.</p><br>
<p>Bungalow 3 which was earlier the residence of Dr. Manmohan Singh has now been converted into a guesthouse for PM&#39;s guests.</p><br>
<p>Bungalow No. 9 LKM, is occupied by the Special Protection Group (SPG) that guards the PM. A 1.5 km long underground tunnel connects the Indian prime minister&#39;s residence to Safdarjung Airport, where VVIP helicopters land. Constructed beyond Kemal Atatürk Marg, Golf Course and Safdarjung Tomb and then an overground drive to surface at the helicopter hangar at the airport, work on the tunnel began in 2010 and was completed by July 2014 and Modi was the first PM to use it.</p><br>
<p>Current prime minister Narendra Modi uses 5, LKM as his residence which has also been used as so by Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Rajiv Gandhi.</p><br>
<h3>Panchvati</h3><br>
<p>In 2001, during the tenure of Vajpayee, a state-of-the-art auditorium was constructed at the cost of and was named as Panchvati, it has been named after the spot where Rama and Sita had built their hut during their exile. Its equipped for video conferencing and simultaneous translations This can be modelled into 2–3 conference rooms and can also act as a banquet for a gather of 200–340 people. This can be used as a cabinet meeting room and can also be arranged to form a theatre.</p><br>
<h3>Security</h3><br>
<p>While the government-run Special Protection Group (SPG) is the primary agency in charge of the security, it is aided by the Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) and Delhi Police to provide three-rung security for the estate. There is only one entrance to 7 Lok Kalyan Marg, which is guarded by the SPG. Only those visitors whose names have been given to SPG by the prime minister&#39;s personal secretaries are allowed in. The rule applies to everybody – including the national security adviser, top bureaucrats, relatives and guests (barring close family). Visitors are expected to carry an identity card. No outside vehicle is allowed to go beyond this checkpoint and even high profile visitors including cabinet ministers have to park their official vehicles by the checkpoint. Special SPG vehicles are used to carry the guests from the checkpoint to the residential office of the PM. The only exception to this rule allowed by SPG is for the SPG protectors themselves who are allowed to take the vehicle carrying them into the complex.</p><br>
<p>The whole area is a no-fly zone and airspace usage around the area is highly restricted and monitored. Over the years its security has gradually been beefed up, a bulletproof glass-tube passage was built in 2003, connecting 3, Lok Kalyan Marg, at the Prime Minister’s residence to Panchvati or 7 Lok Kalyan Marg, where the PM meets people and delegations and holds official meetings. Also a concrete wall was added on the periphery, separating the house from the main road, to render any truck bomb or a car bomb attack ineffective. However PM residence is surrounded by various high rise building and public structures, from Samrat Hotel, Ashoka Hotel and state guesthouses on the one side to the Delhi Gymkhana Club (DCG), and Delhi Race Course which lies across the road, thus plans for a Helipad within the complex were mooted for several years for that reason. In fact by 2004, the Intelligence Bureau (IB) took over most of the rooms of Samrat Hotel overlooking the PMs residence and watchtowers were erected inside Delhi Gymkhana and it can be accessed only via Safdarjung Road entry. Residence has a power substation and doctors and nurses from the All India Institute of Medical Sciences are on duty round the clock there are several ambulances on standby, one of which always accompanies the prime ministers motorcade. The civic officials ensure that there are no traffic bottlenecks on Kemal Atatürk Marg that runs outside the bungalows.</p><br>
<p>In 2004, the road was refurbished at a cost of to make it the permanent residence of the Indian Prime Minister.</p><br>
<p>7 LKM also has massive, manicured lawns and has abundant gulmohar, semal and arjuna trees which homes several birds, including peacocks.</p><br>
<h3>Staff</h3><br>
<p>Besides the secretarial staff, it has a support staff of about 200 gardeners, peons, and electricians. They are employed after a thorough background check.</p><br>
<h2>Workplace</h2><br>
<p>The workplace at 7 LKM has two small rooms on either side from the entrance for each of the two personal secretaries. Then there is a small corridor with a visitor&#39;s room to the right. Further ahead is a chamber to meet guests. Adjacent to that is the living space for larger meetings, behind which is the dining room where breakfast and lunch meetings are hosted. A corridor from 7 LKM leads to Panchvati which can be segmented into two or three conference rooms or a large banquet hall.</p><br>
<p>On the walls are artworks loaned by the National Gallery of Modern Art (NGMA) which are often changed in consultation with the prime minister&#39;s office. The gifts received by the PM are either displayed at 7 LKM or are sent to the toshakhana (treasure house).</p><br>
<p>"Ironbottom Sound"  is the name given by Allied sailors to the stretch of water at the southern end of The Slot between Guadalcanal, Savo Island, and Florida Island of the Solomon Islands, because of the dozens of ships and planes that sank there during the Battle of Guadalcanal in 1942–43. Before the war, it was called Savo Sound. Every year on the battle&#39;s anniversary, a U.S. ship cruises into the waters and drops a wreath to commemorate those who lost their lives. For many Navy sailors, and those who served in the area during that time, the waters in this area are considered sacred, and strict silence is observed as ships cruise through.</p><br>
<h2>Related articles</h2><br>
<h3>Battles</h3><br>
<p>Battle of Savo Island, 9 August 1942</p><br>
<p>Battle of Cape Esperance, 11&ndash;12 October 1942</p><br>
<p>Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, 13&ndash;15 November 1942</p><br>
<p>Battle of Tassafaronga, 30 November 1942</p><br>
<p>Operation I-Go, 1&ndash;16 April 1943</p><br>
<h3>Sunken ships</h3><br>
<h4>Allied</h4><br>
<p>(US )</p><br>
<p>(US )</p><br>
<p>(US anti-aircraft cruiser)</p><br>
<p>(US )</p><br>
<p>(US )</p><br>
<p>(Australian )</p><br>
<p>(US )</p><br>
<p>(US )</p><br>
<p>(US )</p><br>
<p>(US Gleaves-class destroyer)</p><br>
<p>(US )</p><br>
<p>(US Wickes-class destroyer)</p><br>
<p>(US Bagley-class destroyer)</p><br>
<p>(US attack transport)</p><br>
<p>(US )</p><br>
<p>(US Benson-class destroyer)</p><br>
<p>(US Wickes-class destroyer)</p><br>
<p>(New Zealand corvette)</p><br>
<p>(US Gleaves-class destroyer)</p><br>
<p>(US heavy cruiser)</p><br>
<p>(US Mahan-class destroyer)</p><br>
<p>PT-37 (US PT boat)</p><br>
<p>PT-44 (US PT boat)</p><br>
<p>PT-111 (US PT boat)</p><br>
<p>PT-112 (US PT boat)</p><br>
<p>PT-123 (US PT boat)</p><br>
<p>(US New Orleans-class cruiser)</p><br>
<p>(US oceangoing tug)</p><br>
<p>(United States Coast Guard-manned Liberty ship) (exploded and sunk 29 January 1945 while loading depth charges)</p><br>
<p>(US New Orleans-class cruiser)</p><br>
<p>(US )</p><br>
<p>YP-284 (US Yard Patrol craft)</p><br>
<h4>Japanese</h4><br>
<p>(Japanese Type J1 submarine)</p><br>
<p>(Japanese Type J1 submarine)</p><br>
<p>(Japanese destroyer)</p><br>
<p>(Japanese )</p><br>
<p>(Japanese freighter)</p><br>
<p>(Japanese Fubuki-class destroyer)</p><br>
<p>(Japanese )</p><br>
<p>(Japanese battlecruiser)</p><br>
<p>(Japanese military transport)</p><br>
<p>(Japanese freighter)</p><br>
<p>(Japanese )</p><br>
<p>(Japanese military transport)</p><br>
<p>(Japanese Kongō-class battlecruiser)</p><br>
<p>(Japanese )</p><br>
<p>(Japanese Yūgumo-class destroyer)</p><br>
<p>(Japanese destroyer)</p><br>
<p>(Japanese military transport)</p><br>
<p>(Japanese )</p><br>
<p>Otago Harbour is the natural harbour of Dunedin, New Zealand, consisting of a long, much-indented stretch of generally navigable water separating the Otago Peninsula from the mainland. They join at its southwest end, 21 km from the harbour mouth. It is home to Dunedin&#39;s deep water port facilities on its western shores in the suburb of Port Chalmers.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The harbour was formed from the drowned remnants of a giant shield volcano, centred close to what is now Port Chalmers. The remains of this violent origin can be seen in the basalt of the surrounding hills. The last eruptive phase ended some ten million years ago, leaving the prominent peak of Mount Cargill.</p><br>
<p>Substantial container port facilities exist at Port Chalmers, 9 km along the western shore from the harbour mouth. A channel along the western side of the harbour is regularly dredged, allowing vessels with a draught of 12.5 m to Port Chalmers, and 8 m all the way to the heart of Dunedin. New Zealand&#39;s frozen meat export trade was inaugurated at Port Chalmers in 1882. The dredging of this channel, the Victoria Channel, was a major undertaking for the settlement of Dunedin in the 19th century. The eastern side of the harbour is shallow, with large sandbanks exposed at low tide.</p><br>
<p>Two islands form a line between Port Chalmers and Portobello in the lower harbour—Goat Island and Quarantine Island/Kamau Taurua. A smaller island known as Pudding Island (Titeramoa) lies close to the Peninsula shore and can be reached by foot at low tide.</p><br>
<p>Portobello is home to one of New Zealands leading marine research establishments, the Portobello Marine Laboratory, a department of the University of Otago. This lies at the harbours edge on the tip of a small arm of the Otago Peninsula, the Portobello Peninsula.</p><br>
<p>Near the mouth of the harbour lies the township of Aramoana (Maori for "pathway to the sea"), infamous for a massacre of 13 people by a gunman, David Gray, in November 1990.</p><br>
<p>This is also the site twice projected for New Zealand&#39;s second aluminium smelter. The proposals, in the mid-1970s and early 1980s, were abandoned after major public protest. The harbour is tidal, shallow and seldom rough and for that reason is popular for water sports such as yachting and windsurfing.</p><br>
<p>A significant area at the head of the harbour has been reclaimed since the founding of Dunedin, primarily for industrial use. Smaller portions have also been reclaimed at a number of places around the harbour, including Port Chalmers, Macandrew Bay, and Broad Bay.</p><br>
<h2>Biology</h2><br>
<h3>Seabirds</h3><br>
<p>As a part of the famous Otago Peninsula, the harbor water is known for various rare wildlife. The area is the home of many species of wading birds. Other bird species which visit the harbour include two species of penguins, little penguin and famous yellow-eyed penguins. Taiaroa Head, at the tip of the Otago Peninsula, is home to a colony of northern royal albatrosses, the only such close to a city in the world.</p><br>
<h3>Marine mammals</h3><br>
<p>The bay and peninsula provides a critical habitat for Hooker&#39;s sea lions and New Zealand fur seal. Southern elephant and leopard seals are occasional visitors into the harbor. In total, four species of pinnipeds, and at least nine or more species of cetaceans are known to inhabit or migrate through the area.</p><br>
<p>Outer peninsula or adjacent to Taiaroa Head is one of three main congregating areas for dusky dolphin in New Zealand waters and waters of the harbor and the peninsula hosts important areas for breeding and nursing. Bottlenose dolphins and critically endangered, endemic Hector&#39;s dolphins also frequent the water. Other species such as common dolphins and orcas can visit the harbor entrance where orcas and dusky dolphins have been seen interacting without violence. Southern right whales historically frequented inside the entrance of the harbor possibly up to Quarantine and Goat Islands or further (unsure if they ever passed through the islands), using the shallow, calm water for nursing calves before commercial whaling wiped them out. Their visits to the harbor are very seldom nowadays, and possible future studies may be conducted to examine any approaches to call back whales into the harbor once again. The number of humpback whales visiting the peninsula shows more increases as the species recover much faster than the southern rights. There have also been observations of blue whales, minke whales, and long-finned pilot whales.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The existence of the harbour was guessed by Captain Cook when he was off what is now the Dunedin Pacific coast in 1770. It is not known when the first Europeans entered but it was some time long before 1810, according to the Creed manuscript discovered in 2003. George Bass made the Dunedin end of the harbour the north east limit of his proposed fishing monopoly in 1803. The American ship Favorite with its supercargo Daniel Whitney may have called in the summer of 1805 to 1806. Daniel Cooper, master of the London sealer Unity probably did call in the summer of 1808 to 1809 when his Chief Officer, Charles Hooper, probably gave his name to Hoopers Inlet on the Otago Peninsula. William Tucker (1784–1817) was with a gang employed by Robert Campbell, a Sydney merchant, dropped on islands off the Dunedin coast in November 1809 and with another man, Daniel Wilson, was at Otago Harbour on 3 May 1810 when Robert Mason, master of the Brothers, anchored in the harbour and picked him up. This is the first, explicit and identifiable reference to a European ship in the Otago Harbour. The court record containing it, made in 1810, refers to the harbour as Port Daniel&#39;, a name which stayed in use for some years.</p><br>
<p>Another English sealer, the Sydney Cove, Captain Charles McLaren, was anchored in the harbour late in 1810 when Te Wahias theft of a knife, a red shirt and some other articles sparked what has been called "The Sealers War"—he War of the Shirt.</p><br>
<p>A much disussed affray in that conflict occurred after James Kelly of Hobart anchored the Sophia in the harbour in December 1817 with William Tucker on board. After a visit to nearby Whareakeake (Murdering Beach) where Tucker had been living since 1815 and where he and two other men were now killed Kelly took revenge on Māori on his ship in the harbour, including a chief Korako. He then burnt a harbourside village,the beautiful City of Otago, probably on Te Rauone Beach and certainly not at Whareakeake as has often been suggested.</p><br>
<p>A peace was concluded in 1823 and on 17 July of that year John Rodolphus Kent of the Naval cutter Mermaid from New South Wales, while in the harbour, took the liberty of naming it (as it has not hitherto been named) "Port Oxley", in honour of the Surveyor General of the Colony in fact John Oxley (1783/85?–1828). As noted, it had already been named. In 1826 Thomas Shepherd, one of a party of intending colonists, explored the site of Dunedin and left the oldest surviving pictures of the harbour and nearby coast, now in the Mitchell Library Sydney.</p><br>
<p>From its origins as a secret sealers haven Otago Harbour developed into a busy international whaling port after the Weller brothers established their whaling station at Te Umu Kuri, Wellers Rock, at what is now called Otakou in November 1831. The busiest whaling port south of the Bay of Islands, it was also the hub of the largest European population in New Zealand after the Bay of Islands/Hokianga district by the end of 1839. By that time whaling had collapsed and Dumont DUrville and his officers, visiting in 1840, observed the port had become the centre of a riotous trade in liquor and prostitution. This continued until the Scottish settlers arrived in 1848 and made Port Chalmers and Dunedin the new population centres on the harbour.</p><br>
<h2>The Victoria Channel</h2><br>
<p>While Otago Harbour might have the appearance of an excellent deep-water port, it was not naturally suited to such a role, especially in the early days of settlement when ships needed to dock close to the city. The flat land at the southern end of the harbour and close to the isthmus of Otago Peninsula was ideally suited for a city (and was the site for Dunedin), but the harbour itself could naturally accommodate deep-drafted ships only as far as Port Chalmers. At Port Chalmers, two islands (Quarantine Island/Kamau Taurua and Goat Island) almost bisect the harbour. Beyond them, the harbour is shallow and silty, and mudflats are often visible at low tide.</p><br>
<p>As the city grew, and particularly with the increase in commerce that developed following the Otago Gold Rush of the 1860s, it became desirable to provide a means for ships to reach the citys wharves. Though a contentious and expensive decision, it was agreed to dredge a channel along the northwestern side of the harbour. The channel was finally opened on 30 December 1881. The initial channel was narrow and shallow, and did not get off to an auspicious start, as the Union Steam Ship Companys SS Penguin, the first ship to use it, was temporarily grounded while using it. The channel was officially named the Victoria Channel by Keith Ramsay, chairman of the Otago Harbour Board.</p><br>
<p>As finance allowed, the channel was gradually widened and deepened, and by 1907, twice as many ships were using Dunedins wharves as used Port Chalmers. It was only with the advent of Port Chalmers container port in the early 1970s that the Victoria Channel again became quiet. The channel is maintained by Port Otago Ltd, who keep it dredged to a depth of eight metres, allowing ships of up to 40,000 tonnes deadweight to travel up the harbour to Dunedin. Much of the channels larger traffic in the early 21st century is oil transport to Dunedin city and chemicals and fertiliser to and from Ravensbournes fertiliser works.</p><br>
<h2>Harbourside settlements</h2><br>
<p>Settlements by the harbour include (in order from the mouth of the harbour):</p><br>
<p>On the western shore:</p><br>
<p>Aramoana</p><br>
<p>Careys Bay</p><br>
<p>Port Chalmers</p><br>
<p>Sawyers Bay (with a tannery)</p><br>
<p>Roseneath</p><br>
<p>Saint Leonards</p><br>
<p>Ravensbourne (with a fertiliser works)</p><br>
<p>On the eastern shore:</p><br>
<p>Harington Point</p><br>
<p>Weller&#39;s Rock (With access to the albatross colony, seal colony, and Fort Taiaroa)</p><br>
<p>Otakou</p><br>
<p>Harwood</p><br>
<p>Portobello</p><br>
<p>Broad Bay</p><br>
<p>Macandrew Bay</p><br>
<p>Challis</p><br>
<p>Andersons Bay</p><br>
<p>on Wikimedia Commons</p><br>
<p>The Indonesian throughflow  is an ocean current with importance for global climate since it provides a low-latitude pathway for warm, fresh water to move from the Pacific to the Indian Ocean and this serves as the upper branch of the global heat conveyor belt. Higher ocean surface topography in the western Pacific than in the Indian Ocean drives upper thermocline water from the North Pacific through the western route of the Makassar Strait to either directly exit through the Lombok Strait or flow eastward into the Banda Sea. Weaker flow of saltier and denser South Pacific water passes over the Lifamatola Passage into the Banda Sea, where these water masses are mixed due to tidal effects, Ekman pumping, and heat and fresh water flux at the ocean surface. From the Banda Sea the ITF exits Timor, Ombai, and Lombok passages.</p><br>
<p>The location and topography of the channels that make up the ITF are shown in the Figure. Lombok Strait is 300m deep and roughly 35 km wide and the currents vary between 0.286 m/s (0.6 mi/hr) eastward to 0.67 m/s westward and average 0.25 m/s westward. Currents in Ombai vary between 0.12 m/s eastward to 0.16 m/s westward, averaging 0.11 m/s westward and are funneled within the 1250m deep and 35 km wide passage. Timor passage, which is 1890 m deep by 160 km wide, is the widest of the exit pathways and averages only 0.02 m/s. From 2004–2006, 11 moorings were deployed across the entrance and exit regions of the ITF and were positioned to accurately measure each passage’s contribution as part of the International Nusantara Stratification and Transport (INSTANT) program. Flow in through Makassar (11.6 Sv, 1 Sv=10 m³/s) and Lifamatola (1.1 Sv) sums to 12.7 Sv. Total outflow transport corresponds to 15.0 Sv (varying from 10.7 to 18.7 Sv) and is made up of Lombok (2.6 Sv), Ombai (4.9 Sv) and Timor (7.5 Sv) contributions. Heat Transport of the Indonesian Throughflow is 1.087 PW (1 PW=10 Watt).</p><br>
<p>Circulation and transport within the Indonesian Seas varies along with large-scale monsoon flow. During June to August, southeasterlies of the southwest monsoon predominate over Indonesia and drive strong Ekman divergence (southwestward flow in the Southern Hemisphere thus increasing ITF to 15 Sv) whereas from December to February, Northwest Monsoon westerlies serve to directly reduce the ITF. During monsoon transitions, strong westerly winds in the eastern Indian Ocean force equatorial downwelling Kelvin waves (eastward moving, eastward flow) that propagate through the Indonesian passages as coastally trapped Kelvin waves and serve to reduce the ITF flow with a minimum in April of 9 Sv. Another way to think about it is that downwelling on the Indian Ocean side increases sea level and so reduces the normal Pacific-to-Indian pressure head reducing the flow.</p><br>
<p>Global-scale, ocean waves such as equatorial/coastal Kelvin and Rossby waves drive interannual variation of the ITF with an amplitude of roughly +/-3 Sv. Western-central Pacific westerly winds from El Nino force westward moving-equatorial Rossby waves and eastward currents that hit eastern New Guinea and propagate around the west coast as coastal Kelvin waves and down through the ITF along the west Australia Shelf coast serving to reduce the ITF. Upwelling (i.e. reduced sea level) associated with Rossby waves on the Pacific side reduces the Pacific-to-Indian pressure gradient and reduces the ITF. Interannual variability of Indian Ocean westerlies act in the same manner as the seasonal equatorial Kelvin waves to reduce the normal westward ITF flow as well.</p><br>
<p>An important feature of the Indonesian Throughflow is that because the water in the western equatorial Pacific Ocean has a higher temperature and lower salinity than the water in the Indian Ocean, the Throughflow transports large amounts of relatively warm and fresh water to the Indian Ocean. When the Indonesian Throughflow (through Lombok Strait, Ombai and the Timor Passages) enters the Indian Ocean it is advected towards Africa within the Indian South Equatorial Current. There it eventually exits the Indian Ocean with the Agulhas Current around South Africa into the Atlantic Ocean. So the Indonesian Throughflow transports a significant amount of Pacific Ocean heat into the southwest Indian Ocean, which is approximately 10,000 km away from the Lombok Strait.</p><br>
<p>Lopez Island is the third largest of the San Juan Islands and an unincorporated town in San Juan County, Washington, United States. Lopez Island is 29.81 square miles in land area. The 2000 census population was 2,177, though the population swells in the summer, as second homes, rental houses and campsites fill up.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>of Lopez Island overlooking the Strait of Juan de Fuca</p><br>
<p>During the Wilkes Expedition, Lopez Island was given the name Chauncey Island, after the American naval commander Isaac Chauncey. When the British reorganized the official admiralty naval charts in 1847, Henry Kellett systematically removed many of Wilkes&#39;s names. He renamed the island Lopez, for Gonzalo López de Haro, the Spanish naval officer who was the first European to discover the San Juan Islands archipelago.</p><br>
<p>The Lopez Island Historical Museum collects and preserves the regional history of Lopez and the San Juan Islands. The museum features artifacts reflecting Lopez&#39;s contributions to the maritime, fishing and farming industries. The museum has an extensive archive of local historical documents as well as artifacts depicting life on Lopez Island in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Lopez Island is flatter than most of the other major San Juan Islands. It is also the most rural of the larger islands, and has rolling terrain of forest, farmland, and beaches. The island is longest in the north-south direction</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>This region experiences warm and dry summers, with no average monthly temperatures above 71.6 °F. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Lopez Island has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated "Csb" on climate maps.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>There are no highways on Lopez Island, and no bridges connecting to the mainland or other islands. The primary means of travel to and from Lopez Island is by ferry. The at the extreme north end of the island. It is the first stop of four on the Washington State Ferries’ San Juan Islands run. A typical sailing from Anacortes takes approximately 40 minutes.</p><br>
<p>Lopez Island Airport is the main airstrip for the island, located on its west side, with daily commercial flights. Charter floatplanes land in Fisherman Bay at Fisherman Bay Seaplane Base, located approximately three-fourths mile north of the airport. A small airstrip called also is located not far from the ferry terminal.</p><br>
<h2>Economy and Tourism</h2><br>
<p>Lopez is home to a large number of tourist related businesses, largely country-style bed and breakfasts, many with ocean views. There is a vineyard and one hotel and resort.</p><br>
<p>Lopez Island is a popular destination for bicycle tourists. Some of the roads, however, are narrow which can lead to occasional traffic and bicycle congestion. But overall the drivers are bicycle friendly and the roads are easier to ride than the other islands.</p><br>
<p>The island is locally famous for the longstanding custom of waving at every motorist, bicyclist, or pedestrian encountered on the island&#39;s roads.</p><br>
<p>In 1996 Paul Allen bought a large Sperry Peninsula site on Lopez Island.</p><br>
<h2>Parks</h2><br>
<p>Agate Beach County Park &mdash; This picnic area and beach is at the end of MacKaye Harbor Road at the south end of the island.</p><br>
<p>Odlin County Park &mdash; This park is used for camping and picnics and has a boat launch. One of the most popular beaches on the island, Odlin Park resides just south of the Ferry Landing and is a popular stop during the summer.</p><br>
<p>Otis Perkins Day Park &mdash; This park has one of the longest beaches in the San Juan Islands.</p><br>
<p>Shark Reef Park &mdash; This park offers long views west over San Juan Channel. It includes a half-mile trail through some old-growth trees.</p><br>
<p>Spencer Spit State Park &mdash; The focus of this park on the northeast side of the island is a long, low sandspit that almost connects to small Frost Island just offshore. This 130 acre (53 ha) park has a camping area, picnic sites and mooring buoys for boats.</p><br>
<p>Upright Channel Park &mdash; This state-operated facility offers several picnic sites and a hike down to a sandy beach.</p><br>
<h2>Media</h2><br>
<p>KLOI-LP - local low-power FM radio station based on Lopez Island.</p><br>
<p>Sahand , is a massive, heavily eroded stratovolcano in East Azerbaijan Province, northwestern Iran. At 3,707 m, it is the highest mountain in the province of East Azarbaijan.</p><br>
<p>It is one of the highest mountains in Iranian Azerbaijan, in addition to being an important dormant volcano in the country. The Sahand mountains are directly south of Tabriz, the highest peak of which is Kamal at an elevation of 3,707 m. Approximately 17 peaks can be accounted for as being over 3,000 m. in height. Due to the presence of a variety of flora and fauna, the Sahand mountains are known as the bride of mountains in Iran.</p><br>
<p>The absolute dating of Sahand rocks indicates that this volcano has been sporadically active from 12 million years ago up to almost 0.14 million years ago. Sahand is made chiefly of dacite and associated felsic rocks.</p><br>
<h2>Winter sports</h2><br>
<p>Sahand Ski Resort is on the northern foothills of the mountain and near the city of Tabriz. In the complex the Sahand Skiing Stadium has a 1200 meters length ski area and skiing and snowboarding is practiced in the resort. The snow sculpture competition, which runs once a year at mid-winter in the stadium, is a famous entertainment that attracts spectators and competitors from all over the country.</p><br>
<p>Sabalan , or Savalan  is an inactive stratovolcano in the Alborz mountain range and Ardabil Province of northwestern Iran.</p><br>
<p>At 4,811 m in elevation, it is the third highest mountain in Iran. It has a permanent crater lake formed at its summit. On one of its slopes around 3,600 m in elevation there are large rock formations of eroded volcanic outcrops which resemble animals, birds, and insects.</p><br>
<h2>Mount Sabalan</h2><br>
<p>Located in the extreme northwest of Iran, Sabalan is the country&#39;s second highest peak after Damavand. It is also higher than Mont Blanc in the Alps.</p><br>
<p>The mountain offers many attractions throughout the year. On the slopes of the mountain the mineral water from springs attracts large numbers of tourists each year, many of whom have faith in healing properties attributed to the springs. The nomadic people of the area live in small villages, with their round "Yurt" tents appealing to tourism. Sabalan has a ski resort (Alvares) and different tourist areas such as the Sarein spa. The mountain is known for its beautiful vistas, including the Shirvan gorge, where few climbers ever venture.</p><br>
<h2>Sacred place</h2><br>
<p>According to some beliefs, Mount Sabalan was the place where Zoroaster meditated for some years, so Mt. Savalan is one of the important sacred places in Zoroastrianism.</p><br>
<p>Based on nomadic beliefs, when all the snow of Sabalan melts, the end of time will come.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Sabalan is a large andesite stratovolcano in Meshgin Shahr (Khiav), in Iranian Azerbaijan in North West Iran. It is the second highest volcano after Mount Damavand. The volcano is quite old. Its first eruptions occurred in the Eocene and later in the Miocene. But the main volcanism happened in the Pliocene and the Pleistocene as some of its rocks have been dated to 5–1.4 million years. Some references state that volcanic activity continued into the Holocene, less than 10,000 years ago.</p><br>
<p>The summit region has several peaks exceeding 4,500 m, primarily along a southwest-northeast trending ridge. The highest point 4,811 m is at the northeast end of the ridge, and is separated from the 4,620 m+ group of southwestern summits by a 4,190 m col.</p><br>
<p>The mountain is located in a continental climate with hot, dry summers and extremely cold, snowy winters. Precipitation falls primarily as snow in late autumn, winter, and spring, and is sufficient to sustain seven glaciers near the summit above 4,000 m. The largest of these were more than 1.5 km in length as of the 1970s. There are also extensive rock glaciers, several of which are more than 3 km in length.</p><br>
<h2>Climbing</h2><br>
<p>The climbing surface includes rocks of various sizes (Class 2 scrambling), and a moderate degree of fitness is required to climb it. The climb from the base camp starts easy, becomes challenging mid way, then eases in gradient near the top. The lake on the top remains frozen except for about four weeks in late July to early August.</p><br>
<p>Some climbers start by driving to hot springs of Meshgin Shahr, where they start their climb. This climb takes about two days, reaching to the base camp on the first day. Others take a taxi to base camp early in the morning, and climb the mountain in one day. In 2006, there was talk of improving the road to the base camp. If this is done, a regular car should be able to make it to the base camp during the climbing season. The road goes through multiple nomadic encampments of shepherds.</p><br>
<p>One or two days of acclimatization in Tehran or Ardabil may be advisable. Mountaineering has been popular among the youth in Iran. On a Friday during the climbing season (late June to mid August), one may find hundreds of people on the mountain. Guides can also be found in Ardabil. Adequate climbing equipment can be purchased in Ardabil or Tehran.</p><br>
<h2>Surrounding area</h2><br>
<p>The area around Sabalan, particularly near Meshkin and Dasht-eh Moghan, produces large quantities of grain, including wheat. Due to the microclimate produced by the mountain, Ardabil remains pleasantly cool in the summers.</p><br>
<p>There are numerous hot springs around the slopes of Sabalan, with a main concentration within Sareyn County.</p><br>
<p>There are skiing slopes, with snow even in near-summer. A ski resort named "Alvares" is within an hour&#39;s drive from Sareyn on the south ridge of Sabalan.</p><br>
<p>Biscayne Bay  is a lagoon that is approximately 35 mi long and up to 8 mi wide located on the Atlantic coast of South Florida, United States. It is usually divided for purposes of discussion and analysis into three parts: North Bay, Central Bay, and South Bay. Its area is 428 square miles. The drainage basin covers 938 square miles.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The North Bay of the Biscayne Bay lies between Miami Beach barrier island and Miami on the mainland. It has been severely affected over the last century by raw sewage releases, urban runoff, shoreline bulkheading, dredging, the creation of artificial islands and the loss of natural fresh water flow into the bay. However, water quality has steadily improved since regular monitoring began in 1979. North Bay accounts for only 10% of the water area of the bay.</p><br>
<p>Central Bay is the largest part of the bay. It is separated from the Atlantic Ocean by the Safety Valve. It has been adversely affected primarily by bulkheading, urban runoff discharged by canals, and the loss of natural fresh water flow.</p><br>
<p>South Bay is nearly as large as Central Bay, and is the least affected by human activities, although it also suffers from the loss of natural fresh water flow. South Bay is separated from the Straits of Florida by the northernmost of the Florida Keys, and includes Card Sound and Barnes Sound. It is connected to Florida Bay through a few small channels.</p><br>
<h2>Causeways</h2><br>
<p>The first bridge across Biscayne Bay was the 2.5 mi wooden Collins Bridge built in 1912 by John S. Collins and his son-in-law Thomas Pancoast, who formed the Miami Beach Improvement Corporation; financing was provided by Carl G. Fisher and the Miami banker brothers John N. Lummus and James E. Lummus. Construction began on July 22, 1912. Although the cost of the project was initially $75,000, the construction project faced delays and cost overruns. The budge was partially completed in 1913. The bridge was "hailed as the longest wooden vehicle bridge in the world, and opened up the area as a luxury winter resort and playground." The bridge terminated at the Dixie Highway, built by Carl G. Fisher. The bridge was a toll bridge; in 1920, the toll was reduced from 20 cents each way (for two-seat cars) to 15 cents one way (and 25 cents round-trip). The bridge was sold to the Biscayne Bay Improvement Association, which developed five artificial islands that became known as the Venetian Islands: Biscayne and San Marco in Miami, San Marino, Di Lido, and Rivo Alto in Miami Beach.</p><br>
<p>The bridge was torn down in 1925 and replaced with the "more substantial" Venetian Causeway the next year.</p><br>
<p>The Lummus brothers lobbied for the county commissions support for a second causeway connecting Miami to the barrier islands of Miami Beach, and the County Causeway&mdash;later the MacArthur Causeway&mdash;opened on February 17, 1920. In 1925, Biscayne Point was created in Miami Beachs north end. In 1929, a third causeway crossed Biscayne Bay at Normandy Isle, which developer Henri Levy had created several years earlier by dredging and filling the south half of Meade Island. The Julia Tuttle Causeway was built in 1959.</p><br>
<p>Other causeways are the John F. Kennedy (79th Street) and Broad causeways (connecting the Miami mainland), and the Rickenbacker Causeway (connecting Miami to Key Biscayne). The Card Sound Bridge connects the mainland in the Homestead, Florida area to the northern part of Key Largo.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife and preservation</h2><br>
<p>In 1975, the bay was designated as a state aquatic preserve. The aquatic preserve spans the entirety of Biscayne Bay from Oleta River in the north to Card Sound in the south, with the exception of the central part of the bay, which is Biscayne National Park. A second preserve was soon added off of Cape Florida on Key Biscayne, which became known as the Cape Florida to Monroe County Line Preserve. These two preserves are now managed by the state of Florida under the Biscayne Bay Aquatic Preserves. Seven remaining houses of Biscayne Bay&#39;s Stiltsville settlement are now within the boundaries of this National Park which was established in 1980. Much of Biscayne National Park was designated as a National Monument in 1967. Barnes Sound lies within the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. In regards to wildlife, bottlenose dolphins and Florida manatees can be observed in the bay.</p><br>
<p>The bay has been known by several names. Juan Ponce de León called it Chequescha in 1513. Pedro Menéndez de Avilés called it Tequesta in 1565. The British, during their occupation of Florida, called the bay Cape River, Dartmouth Sound, and Sandwich gulph. Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda related that a sailor from the Bay of Biscay called the Viscayno or Biscayno had lived on the lower east coast of Florida for a while after being shipwrecked, and a 17th-century map shows a Cayo de Biscainhos, the probable origin of Key Biscayne. The bay was known as Key Biscayne Bay in the 19th century, finally shrinking to Biscayne Bay late in the 19th century.</p><br>
<p>The bay is also home to the University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science in Virginia Key (founded in 1947) and Florida International Universitys Biscayne Bay Campus (founded in 1977) in North Miami. It was seen in the music video for The Lonely Islands "I&#39;m on a Boat".</p><br>
<h2>Safety Valve</h2><br>
<p>The Safety Valve is a series of shallow sand flats separated by tidal flow channels, stretching about 8 mi from the south end of Key Biscayne to the Ragged Keys at the north end of the Florida Keys. The term "safety valve" was applied to the tidal flats by Ralph Munroe, who argued against building a causeway and bridges connecting Key Biscayne to the Ragged Keys and beyond on the grounds that such construction would block the free outflow of storm surges from the bay across the flats to the ocean. It is believed that it does moderate the effects of storm surges on the bay. The transportation of sand southward along the Atlantic Coast of Florida by longshore drift ends in the area of the Safety Valve. The structure of the Safety Valve has been stable for at least the last century. Stiltsville is a collection of buildings on pilings on several sand flats at the northern end of the Safety Valve.</p><br>
<p>Maleme  is a small village and military airport 16 km to the west of Chania, in north western Crete, Greece. It is located in Platanias municipality, in Chania regional unit.</p><br>
<p>Maleme has many large hotels and several pleasant apartments close to the beach as well as bars and cafés. It is known for its crystal clear pebble shores and the magnificent views of "Thodorou" island and Kolymbari. Among other places in Maleme, visitors can discover the German Cemetery with its magnificent view, the historical Minoan tomb as well as a traditional ceramics workshop where visitors can learn the history of pottery in Crete and Chania and see how ceramics are made. Other interesting hot-spots of Maleme include a variety of shops with local products (wine, honey, cheese).</p><br>
<p>Food lovers can easily satisfy any taste as you can find anything in Maleme, from wood-burning oven pizza to gyros and fresh seafood.</p><br>
<p>There is a large and newly constructed supermarket at the center of Maleme where visitors and locals can find anything they wish and a bus stop across the street leading to Chania city center and other areas.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Bronze Age</h3><br>
<p>A Late Minoan tholos tomb has been discovered in the vicinity of Maleme. The tholos tomb, located on "Kafkala" hill, was accidentally revealed and then looted at the beginning of the 20th century. During World War II a bomb caused the partial destruction of its roof and the backfill of the chamber. It is a significant funerary monument excavated in 1966 by the curator Mr. C. Davaras and partly restored in 1970. It dates back to the Late Minoan III A-B era (14th-13th c. B.C.). A corridor ("dromos"), 25.10m long and 1.60m wide, leads to the chamber. A step in the middle separates the dromos into two parts. The walls are coated with coarse stones, while a slim layer of reddish moratr covered its floor. There is a large lintel over the entrance to the chamber (2m high and 1.60m wide) and a relieving triangle, open to the chamber and covered with a slab on the front. The stone threshold bears two sockets for the reception of pivots of a wooden gate. The chamber was finally blocked with a stone walling.</p><br>
<p>The burial chamber, very carefully built with large porous stones, square in ground plan (4.36m x 4.46m), should have ended in a pyramidal roof. Its floor consisted of pebbles knitted together with lime mortar, while parts of the walls were coated with ivory-coloured mortar. Just two seal stones have been preserved among the grave goods, one made of copper, the other made of agate, together with some pot fragments.</p><br>
<h3>World War II</h3><br>
<p>Maleme is best known as a landing site for German paratroopers invading Crete in 1941, at the start of the Battle of Crete (Operation Mercury) during World War II. The paratroopers captured the airstrip, which was located just outside the town. Once captured, this airstrip allowed the Germans to airlift in the reinforcements needed to capture the rest of the island. Many of the paratroopers lost their lives in the attack and are buried in the German war cemetery (35.522395&deg; latitude, 23.8311892&deg; longitude) located on a hill above Maleme.</p><br>
<p>There is a Royal Air Force (RAF) memorial to the airmen of 30 and 33 Squadrons who died during the battle. The memorial is located (35.525363&deg; latitude, 23.828619&deg; longitude) behind the roadside hedge between Maleme and Tavronitis overlooking the (35.526625&deg; latitude, 23.825604&deg; longitude) Iron Bridge across the Tavronitis River and the end of Maleme aerodrome.</p><br>
<p>The Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, designated the Hawaii State Museum of Natural and Cultural History, is a museum of history and science located in the historic Kalihi district of Honolulu on the Hawaiian island of Oahu. Founded in 1889, it is the largest museum in Hawaii and has the worlds largest collection of Polynesian cultural artifacts and natural history specimens. Besides the comprehensive exhibits of Hawaiiana, the museums total holding of natural history specimens exceeds 24 million, of which the entomological collection alone represents more than 13.5 million specimens . The museum is accessible on public transit: TheBus Routes A, 1, 2, 7, 10.</p><br>
<p>The museum complex is home to the Richard T. Mamiya Science Adventure Center.</p><br>
<h2>Establishment</h2><br>
<p>Charles Reed Bishop (1822–1915), a businessman and philanthropist, co-founder of the First Hawaiian Bank and Kamehameha Schools, built the museum in memory of his late wife, Princess Bernice Pauahi Bishop (1831–1884). Born into the royal family, she was the last legal heir of the Kamehameha Dynasty, which had ruled the Kingdom of Hawaii between 1810 and 1872. Bishop had originally intended the museum to house family heirlooms passed down to him through the royal lineage of his wife.</p><br>
<p>Bishop hired William Tufts Brigham as the first curator of the Museum; Brigham later served as director from 1898 until his retirement in 1918.</p><br>
<p>The museum was built on the original boys&#39; campus of Kamehameha Schools, an institution created at the bequest of the Princess, to benefit native Hawaiian children; she gave details in her last will and testament. In 1898, Bishop had Hawaiian Hall and Polynesian Hall built on the campus, in the popular Richardsonian Romanesque architectural style. The Pacific Commercial Advertiser newspaper dubbed these two structures as "the noblest buildings of Honolulu".</p><br>
<p>Today both halls are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Hawaiian Hall is home to a complete sperm-whale skeleton, accompanied by a papier-mâché body suspended above the central gallery. Along the walls are prized koa wood display cases; today this wood in total is worth more than the original Bishop Museum buildings.</p><br>
<h2>Later development</h2><br>
<p>In 1940, Kamehameha Schools moved to its new campus in Kapālama, allowing the museum to expand at the original campus site. Bishop Hall, first built for use by the school, was adapted for museum use. Most other school structures were razed, and new museum facilities were constructed. By the late 1980s, the Bishop Museum had become the largest natural and cultural history institution in Polynesia.</p><br>
<p>In 1988, construction of the Castle Memorial Building was begun. Dedicated on January 13, 1990, Castle Memorial Building houses all the major traveling exhibits that come to the Bishop Museum from institutions around the world.</p><br>
<p>The Richard T. Mamiya Science Adventure Center opened in November 2005. The building is designed as a learning center for children, and includes many interactive exhibits focused on marine science, volcanology, and related sciences.</p><br>
<h2>Library and archives</h2><br>
<p>The museum library has one of the most extensive collections of books, periodicals, newspapers and special collections concerned with Hawai&#39;i and the Pacific. The archives hold the results of extensive studies done by museum staff in the Pacific Basin, as well as manuscripts, photographs, artwork, oral histories, commercial sound recordings and maps.</p><br>
<p>Many of Hawaiʻi&#39;s royalty, including Bernice Pauahi Bishop and Queen Liliʻuokalani, deposited their personal papers at Bishop Museum. Manuscripts in the collection also include scientific papers, genealogical records, and memorabilia.</p><br>
<p>The book collection consists of approximately 50,000 volumes with an emphasis on the cultural and natural history of Hawaii and the Pacific, with subject strengths in anthropology, music, botany, entomology, and zoology. The library provides extra access to the collection of published diaries, narratives, memoirs, and other writings relating to 18th and 19th century Hawaii.</p><br>
<h2>Institutions</h2><br>
<p>On the campus of Bishop Museum is the Jhamandas Watumull Planetarium, an educational and research facility devoted to the astronomical sciences and the oldest planetarium in Polynesia.</p><br>
<p>Also on the campus is Pauahi Hall, home to the J. Linsley Gressit Center for Research in Entomology, which houses some 14 million prepared specimens of insects and related arthropods, including over 16,500 primary types. It is the third-largest entomology collection in the United States and the eighth-largest in the world. An active research facility, Pauahi Hall is not open to the public.</p><br>
<p>Nearby is Pākī Hall, home to the Hawaii Sports Hall of Fame, a museum library and archives, which are open to the public.</p><br>
<p>From 1988 until 2009, the Bishop Museum also administered the Hawaii Maritime Center in downtown Honolulu. Built on a former private pier of Honolulu Harbor for the royal family, the center was the premier maritime museum in the Pacific Rim with artifacts in relation to the Pacific whaling industry and the Hawaii steamship industry.</p><br>
<p>On the Big Island of Hawai&#39;i, the Bishop Museum administers the Amy B.H. Greenwell Ethnobotanical Garden, specializing in indigenous Hawaiian plant life.</p><br>
<p>Since 1920, the Secretariat of the Pacific Science Association (PSA), founded that year as an independent regional, non-governmental, scholarly organization, has been based at Bishop Museum. It seeks to advance science and technology in support of sustainable development in the Asia-Pacific.</p><br>
<h2>Kaimiloa Expedition</h2><br>
<p>In 1924, American millionaire, Medford Ross Kellum, outfitted a four masted barkantine for a scientific expedition which, even the naming of the ship Kaimiloa, was left entirely to the scientific circles of Honolulu.</p><br>
<p>The goal of the expedition was a five-year expedition to many of the then inaccessible spots of the Pacific. Under the auspices of the Bishop Museum, a group of Hawaiian scientists joined the ship: Gerrit P. Wilder, botanist; Mrs. Wilder, historian; Kenneth Emory, ethnologist; Dr. Armstrong Sperry, writer and illustrator; and Dr. Stanley Ball.</p><br>
<p>The vessel was a complete floating laboratory, possibly the most complete of any craft that has undertaken a similar trip. Bottles, crates, and boxes were stowed below, along with gallons of preservatives for insects and plant specimens for the Bishop Museum.</p><br>
<p>The goals of the expedition were exhaustive:</p><br>
<p>complete collections of islands subjects ranging from insects, plants, minerals, and archaeological and ethnological specimens,</p><br>
<p>study of the fish and sea life,</p><br>
<p>chart as accurately as possible the ocean currents,</p><br>
<p>for the United States government, conform and correct to the findings of the expedition the charts of the island groups,</p><br>
<p>attempt to trace the origin of the Polynesians, their language and their migrations,</p><br>
<p>photograph the natives and measure accurately portions of their bodies,</p><br>
<p>record phonographically records of the speech, the songs, their chants,</p><br>
<p>sound the ocean floor and study the formation of the islands in an effort to prove the theory that these islands were once a part of the mainland and that they formed a “lost continent”.</p><br>
<h2>Falls of Clyde</h2><br>
<p>From 1968 until September 2008, the Bishop Museum owned the Falls of Clyde, the oldest sail-driven oil tanker, which was moored at the Hawai‘i Maritime Center. In early 2007, the ship was closed to public tours for safety reasons and in order to facilitate repairs to the deteriorating tank, which frequently caused the ship to list dramatically. Marine experts conducted a thorough inspection of the ship. Between 1998 and 2008 the Museum incurred more than $2 million in preservation costs.</p><br>
<p>The museum threatened to sink the ship by the end of 2008 unless private funds were raised for a perpetual care endowment. On September 28, 2008, ownership was transferred to the non-profit group, Friends of Falls of Clyde, which intends to restore the ship.</p><br>
<p>In October of that same year, the Bishop Museum was criticized for having raised $600,000 to preserve the ship, and spent only about half that on the ship, and that for sandblasting that was determined to damage the integrity of the vessel. The media also pointed out other questionable spending decisions.</p><br>
<p>Aigio, also written as Aeghion, Aegion, Aegio, Egio,  is a town and a former municipality in Achaea, West Greece, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Aigialeia, of which it is the seat and a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 151.101 km. Its population is around 26,000. Aigio is a port town on the Gulf of Corinth.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The southwestern part of the municipality consists of the foothills of the Panachaiko mountain. The river Selinountas flows into the Gulf of Corinth in Valimitika, 5 km east of Aigio town centre. The town centre is immediately on the coast, between the ferry port and the railway station. Fishermen bring their catches from a night of fishing into the markets every morning. Sites of interest include a Mycenean house dating back to ancient times, located near the cliffs. There is a hospital southwest of the town centre. Residential houses surround the city and flourish in the western part of Aigio, making it a popular destination for Athenians and others alike. Orange and lemon trees grow in most yards, and irrigation from small, open canals keeps the city greener than most.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Antiquity</h3><br>
<p>Before the founding of the city, the area had a Neolithic settlement. The city of Aigion was founded during Homeric times and became part of the first Achaean League since around 800 BC. The city had several Olympic winners including Xenophon, Ladas (stadion race), Athenodorus (Αθηνόδωρος) (stadion race), Straton (Στράτων) (pancration and wrestling). After the disaster of Helike, which was destroyed by an earthquake and buried by a tsunami in 373 BC, Aigion took the territory of the neighbouring city. The ruins of Helike (sometimes called "The Lost Atlantis") were discovered in 2000 off the coast in the Corinthian Gulf and archeologists are excavating the site.</p><br>
<p>From 330 BC Aigion was for fifty years under the Kingdom of Macedon, but around the year 275 BC the people expelled the Macedonian garrison and the city joined the new Achaean League. With the famous temple of Zeus Homarios, Aigion became the Achaean assembly place and remained their capital until the Roman conquest in 146 BC. After the annexation of Achaia, the Romans removed the wall of the city and Aegium lost its importance.</p><br>
<h3>Byzantine era</h3><br>
<p>After the division of the Roman Empire in 395 AD, Aegium became a part of the Eastern Roman Empire and later the Byzantine Empire. After the Slavic invasions of the 7th century it was renamed Vostitsa (Βοστίτσα). The origin of this name is the Old Church Slavonic word vosta or vostan which meant the city of gardens or the garden city.</p><br>
<h3>Frankish/Ottoman era</h3><br>
<p>It was captured by the Crusaders in the early 13th century and became the seat of a barony of the Principality of Achaea. In the early 15th century, it was conquered by the Despotate of the Morea, and in 1459 was conquered by the Ottoman Empire, who ruled it, with brief interruptions by the Venetians from 1463 until 1470 and from 1685 until 1715, until the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence. It was captured by the Greek rebels on 26 March 1821, becoming the first town to be liberated. After Greek Independence, the town was officially renamed to its ancient name.</p><br>
<h3>Modern era</h3><br>
<p>On June 15, 1995, a serious earthquake destroyed many buildings and damaged roads in the downtown and southwestern sections,Journal of Geodynamics Vol. 26, Issues 2-4, 1998, Pages 487-499</p><br>
<p>"Egio earthquake (15 June 1995): An episode in the neotectonic evolution of Corinthiakos Gulf" with a number of casualties. The earthquake shattered Aigio: small memorials are found throughout the city, with candles aglow day and night to remember the victims. The mountainous countryside near Aigio was severely damaged by the 2007 Greek forest fires.</p><br>
<h2>Landmarks and sights</h2><br>
<p>One of the most notable attractions of Aigio is the church of Panagia Tripiti. It is a national sacred shrine dedicated to the Mother of God the Life Giving Spring. It is built on a steep cliff almost 30 meters high, near to sea, in a beautiful landscape full of cypresses and pine trees.</p><br>
<p>The church of Panagia Faneromeni which is the cathedral of Aigio and it is the work of architect Ernst Ziller. The interior is decorated with paintings of Constantine Fanelis.</p><br>
<p>The Archaeological Museum of Aigio which originally housed the municipal market of Aigio.It is a work of the famous architect Ernst Ziller and it was built in 1890.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>Until May 2011 there used to be a ferry service from the port of Aigio to the north-eastern mainland city of Agios Nikolaos (not to be confused with the Cretan city of the same name). Ferry service was very small and only had three Ferries daily. The trip was 45 minutes long. The shipping company that operated the ferry boat announced on May 2011 the stop of the ferry service due to financial reasons. The port is crossed by rail which is not in operation anymore since OSE announced the suspension of all the rail service in the Peloponnese on January 2011. The city can be accessed by Greek National Road 8A (Patras - Corinth) and Greek National Road 31 (Aigio - Kalavryta).</p><br>
<h2>Infrastructure and economy</h2><br>
<p>Aigio, along with Patras and Piraeus, was one of the main export hubs for Corinthian raisins since the 19th century. Today the port is used as a fruit import hub for Chiquita Brands International mainly for import of bananas. A new 256 m long pier northwest of the existing port was inaugurated on 7 August 2013. The whole project cost 8.6 million Euros and is intended to enhance trade and tourism opportunities for the city.</p><br>
<p>Aigio houses two branch departments of the Technological Educational Institute of Patras, the department of Physiotherapy and the Optics and Optometry department.</p><br>
<p>The General Hospital of Aigio is situated a few kilometres out of the town and has a capacity of 100 beds.The Hospital performs the greatest number of Laparoscopic surgeries in Greece while more than 50,000 people are examined on a yearly basis.</p><br>
<h2>Subdivisions</h2><br>
<p>The municipal unit Aigio is subdivided into the following communities (constituent villages in brackets):</p><br>
<p>Aigio (Aigio, Agios Nikolaos, Sotir, Foniskaria)</p><br>
<p>Chatzis</p><br>
<p>Dafnes</p><br>
<p>Digeliotika</p><br>
<p>Kouloura</p><br>
<p>Koumari</p><br>
<p>Kounina (Kounina, Agia Anna, Pelekistra, Petrovouni)</p><br>
<p>Mavriki (Ano Mavriki, Agios Ioannis, Kato Mavriki)</p><br>
<p>Melissia (Melissia, Lakka, Pyrgaki)</p><br>
<p>Paraskevi</p><br>
<p>Pteri (Pteri, Achladea, Agios Andreas, Agios Panteleimonas, Boufouskia, Kato Pteri)</p><br>
<p>Selinounta</p><br>
<p>Temeni</p><br>
<p>Valimitika</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<h2>Mayors</h2><br>
<p>Anastasios Lontos</p><br>
<p>Dimitrios Meletopoulos</p><br>
<p>Dimitrios Oreinos</p><br>
<p>Georgios Meletopoulos</p><br>
<p>Inokentios Romaniolis</p><br>
<p>Diomidis Polychroniadis</p><br>
<p>Andreas Michalopoulos</p><br>
<p>Sotirios Messinezis</p><br>
<p>Athanassios Farazoulis</p><br>
<p>Konstantinos Kanellopoulos</p><br>
<p>Spyros Panagiotopoulos</p><br>
<p>Leonidas Petropoulos</p><br>
<p>Panagos Lyrintzis</p><br>
<p>Efthymios Gatos</p><br>
<p>Christos Lambouris</p><br>
<p>Georgios Kanellopoulos</p><br>
<p>Polychronis Noukopoulos</p><br>
<p>Polychronis Polychroniadis</p><br>
<p>Ioannis Stavropoulos (until 1936)</p><br>
<p>Sotiris Stavropoulos (1936–1941), (1951–1952)</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Andreas Londos, fighter in the Greek War of Independence</p><br>
<p>Dimitrios Meletopoulos, fighter in the Greek War of Independence</p><br>
<h2>Newspapers</h2><br>
<p>Filodimos</p><br>
<p>Proti tis Aigialeias</p><br>
<h2>Sporting clubs</h2><br>
<p>Panegialios F.C., second division</p><br>
<p>Aris Valimitika</p><br>
<p>Egieas Egion</p><br>
<p>Olympiakos Aigio</p><br>
<p>T.A.D. &#39;93 Aigiou</p><br>
<p>Thyella Aigio</p><br>
<p>Tuckerman Ravine is a glacial cirque sloping eastward on the southeast face of Mt. Washington, in the White Mountains of New Hampshire. Although it draws hikers throughout the year, and skiers throughout the winter, it is best known for the many "spring skiers" who ascend it on foot and ski down the steep slope from early April into July. In this period, the temperatures are relatively mild but the natural snowpack — which averages up to 55 ft in a typical winter — is still adequate to ski most seasons. The record-setting high winds atop Mount Washington scour a massive amount of snow from the surrounding highlands and drop it here or in the adjacent Huntington Ravine.</p><br>
<p>Thousands of people have been known to ski Tuckerman in a single spring weekend. Skiing is not limited to this time, but the avalanche danger, peaking from late December to early March, requires special training and experience to assess and navigate the ravine safely during the winter. Avalanches have killed at least 10 people in the ravine since the 1960s.</p><br>
<p>The ravine is most easily accessed from the AMC lodge on Route 16 at Pinkham Notch, via the moderate 2.4 mi lower section of the Tuckerman Ravine Trail. This trail is maintained in winter and spring as a "cat" trail, and parallels the Sherburne Trail used for ski and snowboard descents. It is a 1,850 ft elevation drop from the foot of Tuckerman to the lodge.</p><br>
<h2>Anatomy of the Bowl</h2><br>
<p>Tuckerman Ravine has many different runs that span the bowl, all as steep as 40 to 55 degrees. From the base of the bowl, the run farthest to the left is known simply as "Left Gully" and is one of the easiest runs. Moving to the right, the runs are more challenging and steeper. More to the right, "The Chute" drops between two large cliffs that slowly narrow the run. Still farther to the right are the Center Gullies, which includes "The Icefall", which is 55 degrees, and requires skiers to go off cliffs as tall as 25 ft. Right of "The Icefall" is "The Lip". It is an open run that averages between 50 and 55 degrees. "Right Gully", one of the bowl&#39;s easier runs, drops into "The Sluice" about halfway down, and averages about 40 degrees.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The ravine is named after botanist Edward Tuckerman who studied alpine plants and lichens in the area in the 1830s and 1840s. According to the New England Ski Museum, the first recorded use of skis on Mount Washington was by a Dr. Wiskott of Breslau, Germany, who skied on the mountain in 1899, while the first skier in Tuckerman was John S. Apperson of Schenectady, New York, in April 1914. According to the Mount Washington Avalanche Center, the first known death associated with the bowl is a 15-year-old "killed by falling ice" on July 24, 1886; the first recorded death associated with icefall was in January 1936; the first death associated with falling into a crevasse was in June 1940; and the first skiing-related death was in April 1943.</p><br>
<p>Races held in the 1930s attracted large groups of spectators and skiers. Harvard-Dartmouth slaloms, Olympic tryouts, and giant slaloms all were held in the ravine in that decade. But the races that caught the imagination more than any other, the races that still are talked about by Tuckerman skiers, were the three American Infernos of the 1930s.</p><br>
<p>Just two years after the headwall was first run on April 11, 1931 by Dartmouth men John Carleton and Charles N. Proctor, the Ski Club Hochgebirge proposed a 4.2-mile summit-to-base race on Mt. Washington, to be called the American Inferno, named for a similar race held in Mürren, Switzerland. The American Inferno races were only run in 1933, 34 and most famously on April 16, 1939. A shortened course was run in the spring of 1952 (because of a cloud-shrouded summit) that started just above the Lip of the Headwall, and was won by Dartmouths Bill Beck. The races featured famous skiers like Dick Durrance (34 and 39), Brooks Dodge (52) and Toni Matt (39), who accidentally straight-lined the steep headwall for the win, a still-impressive achievement.</p><br>
<p>The Hoggar Mountains , also known as the Ahaggar Mountains, are a highland region in the central Sahara, southern Algeria, along the Tropic of Cancer. The mountains cover an area of approximately 550,000 square km .</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>This mountainous region is located about 1,500 km south of the capital, Algiers. The area is largely rocky desert with an average elevation of more than 900 m above sea level. The highest peak, Mount Tahat, is at 2,908 m. The mountains are primarily composed of metamorphic rock approximately 2 billion years old, although there are areas where more recent volcanic activity has laid down much newer rock. Several of the more dramatic peaks, such as Ilamen, are the result of erosion wearing away extinct volcano domes, leaving behind the more resistant material that plugged the volcanic cores.</p><br>
<p>Assekrem is a famous and often visited point where Charles de Foucauld built a hermitage in 1911. The main city near the Hoggar Mountains is Tamanrasset, built in a desert valley or wadi.</p><br>
<h2>Environment</h2><br>
<p>The Hoggar Mountain range typically experiences hot summers, with a cold winter climate. Temperatures fall below 0 &deg;C in the winter. Rainfall is rare and sporadic year-round. However, since the climate is less extreme than in most other areas of the Sahara, the Hoggar Mountains are a major location for biodiversity, including number of relict species. The Hoggar Mountains are part of the West Saharan montane xeric woodlands ecoregion.</p><br>
<p>It is also one of the national parks of the country.</p><br>
<h3>Fauna and flora</h3><br>
<p>Slightly to the west of the Hoggar range, a population of the endangered painted hunting dog (Lycaon pictus) remained viable into the 20th century, but is now thought to be extirpated within this entire region.</p><br>
<p>Analysis of collected scat in 2006 showed the presence of the Northwest African Cheetah in the region.</p><br>
<p>Relict populations of the West African crocodile persisted in the Hoggar Mountains until the early 20th century.</p><br>
<p>The park also contains a population of herbivores such as the saharan subspecies of the barbary sheep and the Dorcas gazelle</p><br>
<p>Vegetation in this area includes trees such as Vachellia tortilis, Vachellia seyal, myrtle and Tamarix aphylla which are scattered throughout the area. Other plants may include Citrullus colocynthis and Calotropis procera.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural significance</h2><br>
<p>Prehistoric settlement is evident from extant rock paintings dating to 6000 BC. The Hoggar Massif is the land of the Kel Ahaggar Tuareg. The tomb of Tin Hinan, the woman believed to be the matriarch of the Tuareg, is located at Abalessa, an oasis near Tamanrasset. According to legend, the Tim Lam are from the Tafilalt region in the Moroccan Atlas Mountains.</p><br>
<h2>Panoramic view</h2><br>
<p>Indian Lake  is a reservoir in Logan County, western Ohio, in the United States. It is approximately 20 mi  southeast of Lima. It is fed by the north and south forks of the Upper Great Miami River, Cherokee Mans Run, Blackhawk Creek, and Van Horn Creek, and, starting at the bulkhead or "spillway"  built in the 1850s by Irish laborers, is the beginning of the Great Miami River. At 5,104 acres, Indian Lake is the second largest inland lake in Ohio.</p><br>
<p>Indian Lake, so named by European-American settlers because several tribes lived in the region and found the Lake area to be ideal for fishing and hunting, was originally a group of small lakes and wetlands occupying about 640 acre acres. In the 1850s it was adapted as the 6,334 acre acre "Lewistown Reservoir," in order to collect water for the Sidney Feeder to the Miami and Erie Canal, which extended from Toledo to Cincinnati. Within a few years after its construction, the canal system became an obsolete form of transportation compared to the new and growing railways.</p><br>
<p>However, Indian Lake remained. It was well served by the railways, and has become a destination for leisure activities and recreation such as fishing and boating. In its early years, the lake had bass as aprize catch for fishermen, with bluegill and crappies being caught in great numbers. Since the mid-20th century, the Lake has been stocked with fish including Saugeye, for which it has been nationally recognized. Several major fishing tournaments are held each year, with local bass clubs holding weekly contests. Generally these follow "catch and return" rules. Ice fishing and snowmobling have grown in popularity. Colorful snowmobiles gather, often in large numbers, outside the several lake-front restaurants as their owners stop for tea and coffee with their burgers and wings.</p><br>
<p>Indian Lake has numerous islands, including the "Indian Isles" chain that arcs through the center of the Lake, expansive wildlife areas accessible by a network of channels, numerous inlets and bays, and approximately 30 miles of shoreline. The lake, and adjoining Oldfield Beach (the end point of a several mile, lake-front biking/walking trail), Moundwood and Lakeview Harbor boat ramps, marinas at Moundwood and at Cherokee Campgrounds, and other greenspaces including Pew Island, are managed by the Ohio Department of Natural Resources as part of the Ohio state park system. Popular state walking trails are located, in addition to the one ending at Oldfield Beach, at Pew Island and at the Cherokee Campgrounds.</p><br>
<p>A song by The Cowsills during the 1960s is claimed by Indian Lakers to be about their lake, but others contend it was actually about a lake by the same name in New York State. However, in the many years of The Cowsills being popular, they visited regularly and they (the Cowsills) say "the song is written about our favorite place."</p><br>
<p>The Lake calendar begins with Jimmy Buffett weekend in the first week of February, with the annual Boat Show the first weekend in March. An ever-growing fireworks display, part of July 4 observances, is witnessed by people on hundreds of boats as well as a crowds along the shores. The "Ring of Fire", on the Sunday evening of Labor Day weekend, by lore extends an Indian tradition in celebration of the harvest. Some event, whether a restored Chris Craft boat show, a fishing tournament, or charity "poker runs" around the Lake, is scheduled on almost every summer weekend. Local folklore refers to an abandoned lead mine under the Lake, and use of the north side of the Lake and the dancehall by the Chicago mobsters in days gone by.</p><br>
<p>In its early days extending into the middle of the last century, the Lake was primarily a destination resort, with many waterfront cottages being lightly built primarily for summer use. Many knew of it as the location of the amusement park with its roller-coaster and other rides and a dancehall, discussed below. While still busiest in the summer, since the late 20th century, the Lakefront has become developed as an area of second or retirement homes, with many new permanent houses, and remodeling of numerous older cottages.</p><br>
<h2>Sandy Beach Park</h2><br>
<p>A major part of Lake history is the amusement park and dancehall once in Russells Pointake advertised as the "Midwests Million dollar Playground". Pappy Wilgus, a Russells Point resident, built Sandy Beach Amusement Park, which opened to the public on May 29, 1924. It was also promoted as the "Atlantic City of the West." They erected a 2000 "out and back" wooden coaster, built by National Amusement Device Company, known variously as "Coaster", "Thriller", "Big Dipper" and "Silver Streak" through the years. The park offered a penny arcade, a carousel, a millrace ride, a Ferris wheel, a funhouse, boat excursions, and a boardwalk to Sandy Beach Island for swimming.</p><br>
<p>A major attraction was the Minnewawa Dance Hall. With two bandstands and room for hundreds of couples, the park claimed it was the largest and best dance hall in Ohio. Famous orchestras such as those led by Paul Whiteman and Rudy Vallee packed in the crowds. Sandy Beach was a great success even during the Great Depression, and hosted many dance marathons in the 1920s and early 1930s. The 1931 National Endurance Dance Marathon, held in Minnewawa, lasted an incredible 80 days, 2 hours. When a fire destroyed much of the wooden structures of the park in 1935, the park was sold to new owners. They invested $100,000 in rebuilding, including replacing Minnewawa Dance Hall with the Moonlight Terrace Gardens. Crowds continued to come through the 1950s. Over 100,000 attended the 1953 Ohio Sesquicentennial celebration at Indian Lake.</p><br>
<p>The park and dancehall began to deteriorate and decline in the 1950s, as attendance fell due to people having more choices and access by personal cars. The park was renamed "San Juan Amusement Park," inspired by a vintage neon sign "San Juan Hotel" located near the park&#39;s entrance. On the evening of July 4, 1961, rowdies at Russells Point bars across the street started fighting - and before the evening was over, there was a riot involving nearly 500 youths. For nearly a decade, there were repeats of the Independence Day weekend riots. Families chose to go to safer destinations and motorcycle gangs were attracted to the disruption and came to be part of it. The park management fought back, increasing their security budget, and when it appeared that they had turned the corner on the violence, they renamed the park as Indian Lake Playland in 1967. An illuminated slowly revolving statue of the Virgin Mary was erected at the park in 1964 adjacent to the lake in an effort to bring families back. The statue, still locally maintained, remains there to this day.</p><br>
<p>But large, modern new parks at Cedar Point and Kings Island, each within about a two-hour drive, drew away customers. Seeing the success of Disneyland in Anaheim, California, investors in Sandusky, Ohio made massive investments in Cedar Point in the 1960s. In 1972, the Taft family (Taft Broadcasting) relocated some rides from Coney Island Amusement Park on the banks of the Ohio River 10 miles east of downtown Cincinnati to Kings Mills, Ohio, where they provided the start for a major new theme park known as Kings Island. The Indian Lake park bought a second roller coaster, one of the popular Ben Schiff "Wild Mouse" coasters, but it was to no avail. The park sold the steel coaster, replacing it with a giant multicolored steel slide, before closing down in 1975. The wooden coaster and other rides continued to deteriorate and sit idle until the park was razed in 1982 after the property was purchased in 1981. Many of the dismantled kiddie rides and other park memorabilia were auctioned off prior to the park&#39;s demolition. Much of the property has been privately developed.</p><br>
<p>The park was divided by a channel, the entrance to the Russells Point harbor, with a 1920s footbridge connecting the two sides. A lack of maintenance led to the bridge&#39;s closing decades later, though it remained standing. Private residential development has taken place on former parkland, and condos and apartments line the water. Local fundraising and grants allowed the bridge to be re-lighted in 2010, and in 2014, the bridge was renovated with brick walkways and reopened to the public in a ceremony on August 23, 2014.</p><br>
<h2>The area</h2><br>
<p>Two villages are located on the lake: Russells Point on the south end, and Lakeview about two miles to the northwest along USA 33. Other parts of the Lake area are within various other government areas: a large part of the Lake area is within Stokes Township, although some of the south side is part of Washington Township and some of the east side is part of Richland Township. Its location in the northwestern corner of Logan County places it near to Roundhead Township in Hardin County, Goshen Township and Clay Township in Auglaize County, and Jackson Township in Shelby County. Not surprisingly, mail directed to the Lake area contains various zip codes.</p><br>
<p>Many unincorporated but well-known areas are part of the Lake community: Wolf and Orchard Islands, Artists Isle, Waterbury, Dunns Pond, OConnors Point, Lake Breeze, Long Island, Avondale, King&#39;s Landing, Turkeyfoot and Sassafras Points, Chippewa and Blackhawk, and the many islands and areas comprising the Indian Isles: Lake Ridge, Shawnee, Seminole, Cranberry Bay, Miami, Tecumseh, and Minnewauken.</p><br>
<p>Local low power FM station WRPO in Russells Point serves the Lake area; it is operated by a community-minded citizen.</p><br>
<p>Near Indian Lake are the Mad River Mountain ski resort, the Ohio and Zane Caverns, the Piatt Castles, the Neil Armstrong Air and Space Museum, and Marmon Valley Farms with horseback riding, all open to the public.</p><br>
<h2>Islands</h2><br>
<p>Artist Island</p><br>
<p>Bank Island</p><br>
<p>Bellefontaine Island</p><br>
<p>Big Walnut Island</p><br>
<p>Blackhawk Island</p><br>
<p>Chippewa Island</p><br>
<p>Crystal Beach Island</p><br>
<p>Crane Town Island</p><br>
<p>Dredge Island</p><br>
<p>Duck Island</p><br>
<p>Ewing Island—formerly known as Hermit Island</p><br>
<p>Fantasy Island</p><br>
<p>Fawn Island</p><br>
<p>Fox Island</p><br>
<p>Governor&#39;s Island</p><br>
<p>Hermit Island—currently known as Ewing Island</p><br>
<p>Lake Ridge Island</p><br>
<p>Little Walnut Island</p><br>
<p>Long Island</p><br>
<p>Miami Island</p><br>
<p>Minnewauken Island</p><br>
<p>Neely Island</p><br>
<p>No Name Island</p><br>
<p>Oak Island</p><br>
<p>Old Field Island</p><br>
<p>Orchard Island</p><br>
<p>Paradise Island</p><br>
<p>Pew Island</p><br>
<p>Pony Island</p><br>
<p>Rat Island</p><br>
<p>Red Oak Island</p><br>
<p>Richard Island</p><br>
<p>Shawnee Island</p><br>
<p>Seminole Island</p><br>
<p>Silver Island</p><br>
<p>Sisson Island</p><br>
<p>Snow Island</p><br>
<p>South Walnut Island</p><br>
<p>Sunset Island</p><br>
<p>Tecumseh Island</p><br>
<p>Treasure Island</p><br>
<p>Turkey Foot Island</p><br>
<p>Turtle Shell Island</p><br>
<p>Wedge Island</p><br>
<p>Willow Island</p><br>
<p>Wolf Island</p><br>
<p>The Bonneville Salt Flats is a densely packed salt pan in Tooele County in northwestern Utah. The area is a remnant of the Pleistocene Lake Bonneville and is the largest of many salt flats located west of the Great Salt Lake. The property is public land managed by the Bureau of Land Management and is known for land speed records at the "Bonneville Speedway". Access to the flats is open to the public.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Geologist Grove Karl Gilbert named the area after Benjamin Bonneville, a USA Army officer who explored the Intermountain West in the 1830s.</p><br>
<p>A railway line across the Bonneville Salt Flats was completed in 1910, marking the first permanent crossing. The first land speed record was set there in 1914 by Teddy Tetzlaff.</p><br>
<p>Entertainment filmed at the salt flats include portions of Knight Rider, Warlock, Independence Day, SLC Punk, Cremaster 2 from Cremaster Cycle, The Brown Bunny, The Worlds Fastest Indian, Gerry, The Tree of Life, Top Gear, and Pirates of the Caribbean: At Worlds End. Furthermore, the Pontiac Bonneville (former flagship sedan of the Pontiac motor division), the Triumph Bonneville motorcycle, and the Bonneville International media company are all named for the salt flats.</p><br>
<h2>Salt crust thickness</h2><br>
<p>The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) has undertaken numerous studies of the salt crust thickness within the Bonneville Salt Flats and ultimately concluded in a 2006 study that there was virtually no difference in the salt crust thickness from 1988 to 2003. Specifically, the BLM concluded “despite brine withdrawal for mineral production, neither short nor long-term measurable changes in salt crust thickness could be documented.” The BLM further concluded that earlier salt crust measurement studies showing salt crust deterioration were seriously flawed.</p><br>
<p>Despite this, since 1998, the owners of the Wendover potash facility have worked diligently in conjunction with the BLM to undertake the Salt Laydown Project under which solid salt from ponds located south of highway I-80 is dissolved and pumped onto the Bonneville Salt Flats north of I-80. During the following summer months, heat from the sun vaporizes the water and the precipitated salt becomes part of the race track surface. Since the onset of this project, more than 10.7 million tons of salt have been pumped onto the Bonneville Salt Flats. The Salt Laydown Project is now a required element of the facility’s operating plan.</p><br>
<h2>Land speed events</h2><br>
<p>Motorcar racing has taken place at the salt flats since 1914. Racing takes place at part of the Bonneville Salt Flats known as the Bonneville Speedway. There are five major land speed events that take place at the Bonneville Salt Flats. Bonneville "Speed Week" takes place mid-August followed by "World of Speed" in September and the "World Finals" take place early October.</p><br>
<p>These three events welcome cars, trucks, and motorcycles. The "Bub Motorcycle Speed Trials" are for motorcycles only. World records are contested at the Mike Cook ShootOut in September. The Southern California Timing Association and the Utah Salt Flats Racing Association organizes and plans the multi-vehicle events, but all event promoters contribute to prepping and maintaining the salt. "Speed Week" events in August were canceled for the second year in a row in 2015, due to poor conditions of the salt in certain parts of the flats. The salt flats had been swamped by heavy rains earlier in the year, which usually happens, but the rains also triggered mudslides from surrounding mountains and onto a section of the flats used for the land-speed racing courses.</p><br>
<h2>Stardust</h2><br>
<p>In 2004, the Stardust spacecraft released its sample-return capsule for a landing in the Bonneville Salt Flats after its flybys of asteroid 5535 Annefrank in 2002 and comet Wild 2 in 2004.</p><br>
<p>Makassar Strait is a strait between the islands of Borneo and Sulawesi in Indonesia. To the north it joins the Celebes Sea, while to the south it meets the Java Sea.</p><br>
<p>The Mahakam River of Borneo empties into the strait.</p><br>
<p>Ports along the strait include Balikpapan in Borneo, and Makassar and Palu in Sulawesi. The city of Samarinda is 48 km (30 mi) from the strait, along the Mahakam.</p><br>
<p>The strait is a common shipping route for oceangoing ships too big to fit through the Straits of Malacca.</p><br>
<h2>Extent</h2><br>
<p>The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) defines the Makassar Strait as being one of the waters of the East Indian Archipelago. The IHO defines its limits as follows:</p><br>
<p>The channel between the East coast of Borneo and the West coast of Celebes Sulawesi, is bounded:</p><br>
<p>On the North. By a line joining Tanjong Mangkalihat, Borneo () and Stroomen Kaap (Cape Rivers), Celebes ().</p><br>
<p>On the South. By a line from the Southwestern extreme of Celebes (), through the Southern point of Tana Keke, to the Southern extreme of Laoet () thence up the West coast of that island to Tanjong Kiwi and thence across to Tanjong Petang, Borneo () at the Southern end of Laoet Strait.</p><br>
<p>Valentia Island  is one of Irelands most westerly points. It lies off the Iveragh Peninsula in the southwest of County Kerry. It is linked to the mainland by the Maurice ONeill Memorial Bridge at Portmagee. A car ferry also departs from Reenard Point to Knightstown, the island&#39;s main settlement, from April to October. A second, smaller village named Chapeltown is located at roughly the midpoint of the island, 3 km from the bridge. The permanent population of the island is 665. It is approximately 11 km long by almost 3 km wide.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The English name Valentia Island (also spelled Valencia Island) doesn&#39;t come exactly from the Spanish city of Valencia, but from a settlement on the island called An Bhaile Inse or Beal Inse ("mouth of the island" or "island in the mouth of the sound"), which in turn could have been reinterpreted as similar to the Spanish town by Englishmen and Spaniards sailors and settlers alike (there is a grave marker to Spanish sailors lost at sea in the Catholic cemetery at Kylemore).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Valentia was the eastern terminus of the first commercially viable transatlantic telegraph cable. The first attempt in 1857 to land a cable from Ballycarbery Strand on the mainland just east of Valentia Island ended in disappointment. After subsequent failures of cables landed at Knightstown in 1858 and Foilhommerum Bay in 1865, the vast endeavor finally resulted in commercially viable transatlantic telegraph communications from Foilhommerum Bay to Heart&#39;s Content, Newfoundland in 1866. Transatlantic telegraph cables operated from Valentia Island for one hundred years, ending with Western Union International terminating its cable operations in 1966.</p><br>
<p>Prior to the transatlantic telegraph, American longitude measurements had a 2,800 ft uncertainty with respect to European longitudes. Because of the importance of accurate longitudes to safe navigation, the USA Coast Survey mounted a longitude expedition in 1866 to link longitudes in the United States accurately to the Royal Observatory in Greenwich. Benjamin Gould and his partner A. T. Mosman reached Valentia on 2 October 1866. They built a temporary longitude observatory beside the Foilhommerum Cable Station to support synchronized longitude observations with Hearts Content, Newfoundland. After many rainy and cloudy days, the first transatlantic longitude signals were exchanged between Foilhommerum and Hearts Content on October 24, 1866.</p><br>
<p>In 1993 an undergraduate geology student discovered fossilised tetrapod trackways, footprints preserved in Devonian rocks, on the north coast of the island at Dohilla (51.930868&deg; latitude, -10.343849&deg; longitude). About 385 million years ago, a primitive vertebrate passed near a river margin in the sub-equatorial river basin that is now southwestern Ireland and left prints in the damp sand. The prints were preserved by silt and sand overlying them, and were converted to rock over geological time. The Valentia Island trackways are among the oldest signs of vertebrate life on land.</p><br>
<h2>Places of interest</h2><br>
<p>The combined features and history of the island make it an attractive tourist destination, easily accessible from the popular Ring of Kerry route.</p><br>
<p>Geokaun Mountain and Fogher Cliffs: the highest mountain on Valentia Island and the sea cliffs of 600 ft on its northern face.</p><br>
<p>On the northeast of the island stands Glanleam House amid sub-tropical gardens. Protected by windbreaks from Atlantic gales and never touched by frost, these gardens provide the mildest microclimate in Ireland. Starting in the 1830s, Sir Peter George Fitzgerald, the 19th Knight of Kerry (1808–1880), planted these gardens and stocked them with a unique collection of rare and tender plants from the southern hemisphere, normally grown under glass in Ireland. The gardens are laid out in a naturalistic style as a series of walks. There are plants from South America, Australia, New Zealand (the tallest tree ferns in Europe), Chile and Japan. The gardens are memorialized in a selected golden-variegated Luma apiculata "Glanleam Gold" that originated as a sport in the garden. The gardens are open to the public.</p><br>
<p>The slate quarry which reopened in 1998 provided slates for the British Houses of Parliament.</p><br>
<p>The island also hosts a heritage centre which tells the story of the geology, human, natural and industrial history of the island, with exhibits on the Cable Station, the Marine Radio Station and the RNLI&#39;s Valentia Lifeboat Station.</p><br>
<p>The Telegraph Field (or Longitude Field) is the site of the first permanent communications link between Europe and North America Transatlantic telegraph cables operated from Valentia Island from 1866.</p><br>
<h2>Weather station location and Climate</h2><br>
<p>The Valentia Island Weather Station is located 51° 56 23"N, 10° 1440"W and is 25 m above mean sea level. It is one of the 22 coastal weather stations whose reports are broadcast as part of the BBC Shipping Forecast. Valentia Observatory is part of Met Éireann, the Irish Meteorological Service. The observatory was set up in August 1868. Valentia island is, on average, the wettest weather station in Ireland. The monthly averages for Sunshine and Rainfall are based on 2010 statistics which are around average apart from July, which received only 40% of its normal sunshine hours and 219% of its normal rainfall. Valentia island also has a station for Navtex transmissions. Valentia Island sits on the eastern edge of the Atlantic Ocean. Despite it being on the same latitude as St Anthony in Newfoundland on the opposite side of the Atlantic Ocean, it enjoys much milder winters thanks to the moderating effect of prevailing west or south west winds, and the effects of the warming Gulf Stream current. Snow and frost are rare, and because of this the island can support many sub-tropical varieties of plants.</p><br>
<h2>Sport</h2><br>
<p>Valentia Young Islanders GAA is the local Gaelic Athletic Association club.</p><br>
<p>Valentia is a popular fishing location, and Valentia waters hold the Irish records for conger eel, red sea bream, Ray&#39;s bream and lesser spotted dogfish.</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Helen Blackburn who was a leading woman&#39;s right campaigner in England was born here in 1842.</p><br>
<p>Valentia was considered home to Mug Ruith, a powerful blind druid in Irish mythology.</p><br>
<p>The OSullivans, headed by the OSullivan Beare, owned much of Valentia until the 17th century.</p><br>
<p>The noted naturalist Maude Jane Delap lived and worked in Knightstown, carrying out important research into the marine life surrounding Valentia and identifying many new species.</p><br>
<p>Valentia is the home of former Gaelic footballer, Mick OConnell and the birthplace of John J "Scéilig" OKelly, leader of Sinn Féin from 1926.</p><br>
<p>Gaelic footballer Ger O&#39;Driscoll was born on Valentia Island.</p><br>
<p>The American solo rock climber Michael Reardon died on 13 July 2007 at the Fogher Cliffs of Valentia Island when he was swept out to sea following a successful climb.</p><br>
<p>Gerald Spring Rice, 6th Baron Monteagle of Brandon was brought up on the island, as were many other members of the Spring Rice family.</p><br>
<p>Capitol Hill, in addition to being a metonym for the United States Congress, is the largest historic residential neighborhood in Washington, D.C., stretching easterly in front of the United States Capitol along wide avenues. It is one of the oldest residential neighborhoods in Washington, D.C., and with roughly 35,000 people in just under 2 square miles, it is also one of the most densely populated.</p><br>
<p>As a geographic feature, Capitol Hill rises near the center of the District of Columbia and extends eastward. Pierre (Peter) Charles L&#39;Enfant, as he began to develop his plan for the new federal capital city in 1791, chose to locate the "Congress House" (the Capitol building) on the crest of the hill at a site that he characterized as a "pedestal waiting for a monument". The Capitol building has been the home of the Congress of the United States and the workplace of many residents of the Capitol Hill neighborhood since 1800.</p><br>
<p>The Capitol Hill neighborhood today straddles two quadrants of the city, Southeast and Northeast. A large portion of the neighborhood is now designated as the Capitol Hill Historic District.</p><br>
<p>The name Capitol Hill is often used to refer to both the historic district and to the larger neighborhood around it. To the east of Capitol Hill lies the Anacostia River, to the north is the H Street corridor, to the south are the Southeast/Southwest Freeway and the Washington Navy Yard, and to the west are the National Mall and the city&#39;s central business district.</p><br>
<p>The Capitol building is surrounded by the Capitol Hill Historic District, which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). The Capitol Hill Historic District was expanded in 2015 to the north to include the blocks bordered by 2nd Street, F Street, 4th Street, and just south of H Street, NE, collectively known as the Swampoodle Addition.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>LEnfant selected the location of the Capitol (the "Congress House") in his 1791 design for the federal capital city (see: LEnfant Plan). He referred to the hill chosen as the site of the future Congress House as "Jenkins Hill" or "Jenkins Heights".</p><br>
<p>However, the tract of land had for many years belonged to the Carroll family and was noted in their records of ownership as "New Troy". While a man named Thomas Jenkins had once pastured some livestock at the site of the Capitol (and thus his name was associated with the site), artist John Trumbull, who would paint several murals inside the Capitols rotunda, reported in 1791 that the site was covered with a thick wood, making it an unlikely place for livestock to graze. Research published in 2004 by the Capitol Hill Historical Society showed that Jenkins land was just seven blocks east of the site of the Capitol and that LEnfant was likely to have given Jenkins name to the general location.</p><br>
<p>While serving in 1793 as President George Washington&#39;s Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson named Capitol Hill, invoking the famous Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Hill, one of the seven hills of Rome. However, the connection between the two is not completely clear.</p><br>
<p>The neighborhood that is now called Capitol Hill started to develop when the government began work at two locations, the Capitol and the Washington Navy Yard. It became a distinct community between 1799 and 1810 as the federal government became a major employer. The first stage in its early history was that of a boarding house community developed for members of Congress. In the early years of the Republic, few Congressmen wished to establish permanent residence in the city. Instead, most preferred to live in boarding houses within walking distance of the Capitol.</p><br>
<p>In 1799, the Washington Navy Yard was established on the banks of the Anacostia River, providing jobs to craftsmen who built and repaired ships. Many of the craftsmen who were employed both at the Navy Yard and in the construction of the Capitol chose to live within walking distance, to the east of the Capitol and the north of the Navy Yard. They became the original residential population of the neighborhood.</p><br>
<p>In 1801, Thomas Jefferson, who was at the time President of the United States, selected the location of the Marine Barracks, which had to be within marching distance of both the Capitol and the White House, near the Washington Navy Yard. By 1810, shops, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, and churches were flourishing in the area.</p><br>
<p>The Civil War resulted in more construction in the Capitol Hill area, including the building of hospitals. Construction of new houses continued in the 1870s and 1880s. The neighborhood began to divide along racial and economic class lines.</p><br>
<p>Electricity, piped water, and plumbing were introduced in the 1890s, and were first available in the downtown areas of the District of Columbia, including Capitol Hill. There was a real estate development boom between 1890 and 1910 as the Capitol Hill area became one of the first neighborhoods having these modern conveniences.</p><br>
<p>In 1976, the Capitol Hill Historic District was placed on the National Register of Historic Places. It is one of the largest historic districts in the United States. The boundaries of the historic district are irregular, extending southward from F Street NE, as far east as 14th Street, as far west as South Capitol Street, and with a southern limit marked chiefly by Virginia Avenue but including some territory as far south as M Street SE. It includes buildings from the Federal period (1800 to 1820) through 1919, but most of the buildings are late Victorian.</p><br>
<p>Capitol Hill has remained a fairly stable middle-class neighborhood throughout its existence. It suffered a period of economic decline and rising crime in the mid-20th century but gradually recovered. During the so-called "crack epidemic" of the 1980s, its fringes were often affected. Beginning in the 1990s, the neighborhood has undergone intense gentrification.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Capitol Hill&#39;s landmarks include not only the United States Capitol, but also the Senate and House office buildings, the Supreme Court building, the Library of Congress, the Marine Barracks, the Washington Navy Yard, and Congressional Cemetery.</p><br>
<p>It is, however, largely a residential neighborhood composed predominantly of rowhouses of different stylistic varieties and periods. Side by side exist early 19th century manor houses, Federal townhouses, small frame dwellings, ornate Italianate bracketed houses, and the late 19th century press brick rowhouses with their often whimsical decorative elements combining Richardsonian Romanesque, Queen Anne, and Eastlakian motifs.</p><br>
<p>The main non-residential corridor of Capitol Hill is Pennsylvania Avenue, a lively commercial street with shops, restaurants and bars. Eastern Market is an 1873 public market on 7th Street SE, where vendors sell fresh meat and produce in indoor stalls and at outdoor farmers&#39; stands. It is also the site of an outdoor flea market every weekend. After a major fire gutted the main market building on April 30, 2007, it underwent restoration and reopened on June 26, 2009.</p><br>
<p>Barracks Row (8th Street SE), so called because of its proximity to the USA Marine Barracks, is one of the city&#39;s oldest commercial corridors. It dates to the late 18th century and has recently been revitalized.</p><br>
<p>A new addition to Capitol Hill is a community center named Hill Center. Hill Center is housed in the restored Old Naval Hospital at the corner of 9th and Pennsylvania Avenue SE. The rehabilitation of the Old Naval Hospital combines the restoration of a historically significant landmark with the cutting edge technologies of modern “green” architecture. Hill Center is a vibrant new home for cultural, educational, and civic life on Capitol Hill.</p><br>
<p>Recent estimates in Capitol Hill newspapers suggest as many as a third of all Members of Congress live on Capitol Hill while in Washington.</p><br>
<p>Famous people who were born in the Capitol Hill neighborhood include John Philip Sousa (whose birthplace, on G St., near Christ Church is still standing) and J. Edgar Hoover. Frederick Douglass&#39;s former house can be found in the 300 block of A Street Northeast. In the 1970s, the Douglass house was used as an African Art Museum by Warren M. Robbins.</p><br>
<p>Capitol Hill has one local community newspaper, the Hill Rag, which has been publishing continuously since 1976. The Voice of the Hill closed in May 2010.</p><br>
<h2>Notable residents</h2><br>
<p>Isaac Fulwood, Chief of the Metropolitan Police Department of the District of Columbia (1989–1992)</p><br>
<p>The Nicobar Islands are an archipelagic island chain in the eastern Indian Ocean. They are located in Southeast Asia, 150 km north of Aceh on Sumatra, and separated from Thailand to the east by the Andaman Sea. Located 1,300 km southeast of the Indian subcontinent, across the Bay of Bengal, they form part of the Union Territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India.</p><br>
<p>UNESCO has declared the Great Nicobar Island as one of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and population</h2><br>
<p>The Nicobar Islands cover a land area of 1,648.13 km and had a population of 36,844 during the 2011 Census. They comprise three distinct groups:</p><br>
<p>Northern Group:</p><br>
<p>Car Nicobar</p><br>
<p>Battimaly</p><br>
<p>Central Group:</p><br>
<p>Chowra, Chaura or Sanenyo</p><br>
<p>Teressa or Luroo</p><br>
<p>Bompuka or Poahat</p><br>
<p>Katchal</p><br>
<p>Camorta</p><br>
<p>Nancowry or Nancowrie</p><br>
<p>Trinket</p><br>
<p>Laouk or "Isle of Man"</p><br>
<p>Tillangchong</p><br>
<p>Southern Group (Sambelong):</p><br>
<p>Great Nicobar (922 km², largest island of the Nicobars)</p><br>
<p>Little Nicobar</p><br>
<p>Kondul Island</p><br>
<p>Pulo Milo or Pillomilo (Milo Island)</p><br>
<p>Meroe, Trak, Treis, Menchal, Kabra, Pigeon and Megapod</p><br>
<p>Indira Point (6°45’10″N and 93°49’36″E) is the southernmost point of Great Nicobar Island and also of India itself, lying about 150 km north of Sumatra, Indonesia.</p><br>
<h2>Nature</h2><br>
<p>The Nicobar Islands are part of a great island arc created by the collision of the Indo-Australian Plate with Eurasia. The collision lifted the Himalayas and most of the Indonesian islands, and created a long arc of highlands and islands, which includes the Arakan Yoma range of Burma, the Andaman and Nicobar islands, and the islands off the west coast of Sumatra, including the Banyak Islands and Mentawai Islands.</p><br>
<h3>Ecology</h3><br>
<p>The climate is warm and tropical, with temperatures ranging from 22 to 30 °C. Rainfall is heavy due to annual monsoons and measures around 3000 to 3800 mm each year. The vegetation of the Nicobars is typically divided into the coastal mangrove forests and the interior evergreen and deciduous Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests. Additionally, several islands contain extensive inland grasslands, though these are thought to result from human intervention.</p><br>
<p>The Nicobar Islands are recognised as a distinct terrestrial ecoregion, the Nicobar Islands rain forests, with many endemic species.</p><br>
<p>As a result of lower sea levels during the ice ages, the Andaman Islands were linked to the Southeast Asian mainland, but it is not believed that the Nicobar Islands ever had a land bridge to the continent. Lower sea levels did link the islands to one another: Great Nicobar and Little Nicobar were linked to each other, and Nancowry, Chaura, Katchall, Trinka, Camorta, and the nearby smaller islands were linked to one another as well.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Prehistory</h3><br>
<p>The Nicobar Islands are believed to have been inhabited for thousands of years. Six indigenous Nicobarese languages are spoken on the islands, which are part of the Mon–Khmer branch of the Austroasiatic language family, which includes Mon, Khmer and Vietnamese languages of Southeast Asia, and the Munda languages of India. An indigenous tribe living at the southern tip of Great Nicobar, called the Shompen, may be of Mesolithic Southeast Asian origin.</p><br>
<h3>Origin of the name</h3><br>
<p>The earliest extant references to the name "Nicobar" is in the Sri Lankan Pali Buddhist chronicles, the Dipavamsa (c. 3rd or 4th century CE) and the Mahavamsa (c. 4th or 5th century), which state that the children of the followers of the legendary founder of the Sri Lankan Kingdom, Vijaya, landed on Naggadipa (the island of the children, from the Pali nagga meaning naked). The modern name is likely derived from the Chola dynasty name for the islands, Nakkavaram or Puup Pii (literally, "naked man" in Tamil) which is inscribed on the Thanjavur (Tanjore) inscription of 1050 CE. Marco Polo (12th-13th century) also referred to this island as Necuverann.</p><br>
<h3>Colonial period</h3><br>
<p>The history of organised European colonisation on the islands began with the Danish East India Company in 1754/56. During this time they were administrated from Tranquebar (in continental Danish India) administrated under the name of Frederiksøerne; missionaries from the Moravian Church Brethren&#39;s settlement in Tranquebar attempted a settlement on Nancowry and died in great numbers from disease; the islands were repeatedly abandoned due to outbreaks of malaria: 1784–1807/09, 1830–1834 and finally from 1848 gradually for good. Between 1778 and 1783, William Bolts attempted to establish an Austrian colony on the islands on the mistaken assumption that Denmark–Norway had abandoned its claims to the islands.</p><br>
<p>Italy made an attempt at buying the Nicobar Islands from Denmark between 1864 and 1868. The Italian Minister of Agriculture and Commerce Luigi Torelli started a negotiation that looked promising, but failed due to the unexpected end of his Office and the first La Marmora Cabinet. The negotiations were interrupted and never brought up again.</p><br>
<p>Denmark&#39;s presence in the islands ended formally on 16 October 1868 when it sold the rights to the Nicobar Islands to Britain, which in 1869 made them part of British India.</p><br>
<h3>World War II</h3><br>
<p>During World War II, the islands were occupied by Japan between 1942 and 1945. India occupied these islands after the Surrender of Japan, as its Territory.</p><br>
<h3>Indian state</h3><br>
<p>Together with the Andaman Islands, they became a union territory of India in 1950.</p><br>
<h2>Water Sports</h2><br>
<p>Andaman and Nicobar islands is also known for the various types of water sports available. Water sports include snorkeling, scuba diving, parasailing, under-sea walking and other thrilling sports. Water Sports is one main cause of the huge tourist attraction to this place. People can enjoy with their families and prefer to relax or excite themselves.</p><br>
<h2>26 December 2004 tsunami</h2><br>
<p>On 26 December 2004, the coast of the Nicobar Islands was devastated by a 10–15 m high tsunami following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. At least 6,000 people were killed on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands with reports putting the death toll on Katchal Island alone at 4,600.</p><br>
<p>Several islands were heavily damaged with initial reports of islands broken in two or three pieces and coral reefs moved above water. Teressa Island was said to have been split into two pieces and Trinkat Island into three pieces. Some estimates said that the islands were moved as much as 100 feet (30 m) by the earthquake and tilted.</p><br>
<p>Indira Point subsided 4.25 m and the lighthouse there was damaged.</p><br>
<h2>World Biosphere Reserve</h2><br>
<p>On 31 May 2013 it was reported that Nicobar Islands have been declared as World Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Airport: Car Nicobar CBD/VECX has an airstrip on Car Nicobar Air Force Base of 2717 by 43 meters on the South East coast near Malacca but does not offer commercial service. Great Nicobar has a small airstrip of approximately 1000 meters at Campbell Bay/Tenlaa on its East coast.</p><br>
<p>Seaport: At least one small shipping dock is located in Campbell Bay on the East coast of Great Nicobar. Car Nicobar has a small dock at its Northern tip near Keating Point and Mus.</p><br>
<p>The Pan-Pacific Auditorium, was a landmark structure in the Fairfax District of Los Angeles, California, once stood at 7600 West Beverly Boulevard near the site of Gilmore Field, an early Los Angeles baseball venue predating Dodger Stadium. It was located within sight of both CBS Television City on the southeast corner of Beverly and Fairfax Avenue and the Farmers Market on the northeast corner of Third Street and Fairfax. For over 35 years it was the premier location for indoor public events in Los Angeles. The facility was closed in 1972, beginning 17 years of steady neglect and decay. In 1978 the Pan-Pacific Auditorium was included in the National Register of Historic Places, but 11 years later the sprawling wooden structure was destroyed in a fire.</p><br>
<h2>Architectural icon</h2><br>
<p>Built by event promoters Phillip and Cliff Henderson and designed by Los Angeles architects Wurdeman & Becket, the Pan-Pacific Auditorium opened to a fanfare of Boy Scout bugles on May 18, 1935 for a 16-day model home exhibition. Noted as one of the finest examples of Streamline Moderne architecture in the United States, the green and white facade faced west, was 228 ft long and had four stylized towers and flagpoles meant to evoke upswept aircraft fins. The widely known and much photographed facade belied a modest rectilinear wooden structure resembling an overgrown gymnasium inside and out. The auditorium sprawled across 100,000 ft&sup2; and had seating for up to 6,000.</p><br>
<p>Throughout the following 30 years the Pan-Pacific would host the Ice Capades and the Harlem Globetrotters, serve as home to the Los Angeles Monarchs of the Pacific Coast Hockey League along with UCLA ice hockey, UCLA mens basketball, USC mens basketball, professional tennis, car shows, political rallies and circuses. During the 1940s it was used for audience-attended national radio broadcasts and in the 1950s for televised professional wrestling shows. At its height, most major indoor events in Los Angeles were held at the Pan-Pacific. Leopold Stokowski conducted there in 1936, 1950s actress Jeanne Crain was crowned "Miss Pan Pacific" there in the early 1940s, General Dwight D. Eisenhower spoke to a beyond-capacity crowd of 10,000 in 1952 a month before being elected President of the United States, Elvis Presley performed there in 1957 shortly before he was drafted into the Army and Vice President Richard Nixon addressed a national audience from the Pan-Pacific in November 1960. The building carried on as Los Angeles&#39; primary indoor venue until the 1972 opening of the much larger Los Angeles Convention Center, after which the Pan-Pacific Auditorium was closed.</p><br>
<h2>Decay and fire</h2><br>
<p>There were hopes throughout the surrounding Fairfax District towards refurbishing the Pan-Pacific, possibly as an ice rink or cultural center and the parking lot soon became a park. However, the building was neglected for many years and damaged by small fires started by transients.</p><br>
<p>In 1975, the Pan-Pacific made a brief appearance as the entrance to the NBC Studios in Hollywood for the movie Funny Lady. Interest in the building was rekindled somewhat with its 1978 inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places. The 1980 release of the movie musical Xanadu brought renewed hopes the building might be saved when the auditoriums facade was used to portray a dilapidated building which became a sparkling, brightly lit roller disco nightclub, but the movie was critically panned and not an economic success. It also appears at the beginning of the 1980 music video for the Barnes & Barnes song "Fish Heads". Black-and-white film footage of a man with a jet pack flying from left to right in front of the facade was used in the video for the 1981 Devo single, "Beautiful World". Its final appearance was in the 1988 movie &#39;Miracle Mile.</p><br>
<p>The auditorium continued to deteriorate throughout the 1980s, mostly owing to neglect. A large loading door on the southeast corner was often forced open, allowing free access to anyone. A fire in May 1983 damaged the northern end. On the evening of May 24, 1989 (six days after the 54th anniversary of its opening), the Pan-Pacific Auditorium was destroyed by a fire, the smoke from which was visible throughout the Los Angeles basin.</p><br>
<h2>Site today</h2><br>
<p>The site is now Pan-Pacific Park and has a recreation center, with a scaled-down replica of one of the famous towers, which opened in 2002.</p><br>
<h2>Pop culture</h2><br>
<p>The facade of the building was used in the motion picture Xanadu, in which a muse (a daughter of Zeus) convinces two men to convert the classic but decaying building into a music and entertainment venue. Through special effects, the building is transformed to outshine the building in its heyday.</p><br>
<p>The Producers&#39; 1982 music video "She Sheila" was partly filmed in front of the facade.</p><br>
<p>The 1984 motion picture Ghost Warrior, in which a deep-frozen 400-year-old samurai is shipped to Los Angeles, where he comes back to life, includes scenes of both the seriously decayed facade and the dimly lit interior. In the interior shots, the columns with angled knee bracing and the distinctive arched bowstring trusses are briefly visible.</p><br>
<p>A nearly full-scale, stylized replica of the facade opened as the main entrance to Disney-MGM Studios theme park at the Walt Disney World Resort in Florida on May 1, 1989, just three weeks before the original was destroyed by fire.</p><br>
<p>Disney California Adventure Park, at the Disneyland Resort, opened new entrance gates in the style of the Pan-Pacific&#39;s facade on July 15, 2011.</p><br>
<p>Lubang Island, is the largest island in the Lubang Group of Islands, an archipelago which lies to the northwest of the northern end of Mindoro in the Philippines. The Lubang Islands are about 150 km southwest of Manila. There are seven islands in the group, The island is divided into two municipalities. The largest settlement is the town of Lubang, the northwest end of the island. Its town center is about 8 mi northwest of Tilik Port, the only safe anchorage on Lubang Island. The southeastern half of the island is covered by the Municipality of Looc.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Northwest to southeast the four main islands are Cabra Island, separated by a deep, 3 km wide channel from Lubang Island, then Ambil Island and finally Golo Island. The three smaller islands are Talinas Island, Malavatuan Island and Mandaui Island.</p><br>
<p>Cabra Island is mostly wooded and about 3 km long, rising to a height of about 60 m. It has a lighthouse at the northwest end of the island.</p><br>
<p>Lubang Island is about 125 km&sup2, being over 25 km in length and up to 10 km wide. It is the 34th largest island in the Philippine archipelago.</p><br>
<p>Ambil Island is an extinct volcanic island rising to over 760 m and is about 26 km&sup2; in area. During the earlier part of the Spanish Colonial Era, Ambil was reported to be in eruption. But when it was climbed by German scientist Carl Semper in the latter part of 19th century, he found no evidence that it has erupted in historical times. It is the 93rd largest island in the Philippine archipelago.</p><br>
<p>Golo Island is long, narrow and flat lying, and is about 26 km&sup2; in area.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The islands were originally settled by an ethnic group from the Visayan. By 1900 the islands were inhabited by both Tagalog and Visayan people.</p><br>
<p>The Spanish built a fort on Lubang Island, the San Vicente Bastion, on the western point of the entrance to Tilik Port.</p><br>
<p>After World War II, Lubang Island was where Hiroo Onoda, a Japanese army intelligence officer, hid in the jungles when the Allies reclaimed the Philippines. He engaged in continuous, and sometimes deadly, guerrilla warfare against the United States and later against Philippine Commonwealth troops and paramilitary police. Despite flyers being dropped by airplanes in his hiding area, he adamantly believed that the war was not over yet. In March 1974, he was officially relieved of duty, 29 years after the end of the war, making him one of the last Japanese soldiers to surrender.</p><br>
<p>An independent documentary titled Search For Onoda is currently in production. The documentary was shot on location around Vigo, Burol, Agkawayan and Looc.</p><br>
<h3>Marian Apparitions</h3><br>
<p>From 1966 to 1972, a much-publicized series of Marian apparitions reportedly occurred on the island of Cabra, an impoverished and barren island-barangay of Lubang. The "beautiful lady in white, with a blue sash around her waist" who wanted to be called "Immaculada Concepcion," repeatedly urged the girls, led by honor student Belinda Villas, to pray for those who persist to malign and sin against the Lord and to have a chapel erected in Burol, a rocky promontory overlooking Libis, the shoreline where boats from the Lubang poblacion usually dock. Remarkably, the Lady spoke in the Tagalog vernacular of the island. The film Himala by Ishmael Bernal was allegedly based on these apparitions, but this claim is at the very least preposterous and untrue. The films plot and characters did not accurately, or even remotely, depict the story and messages of the apparitions, let alone present the seers individual biographies. They were never interviewed, and even their copious notes written after each encounter on the hill were neither read nor seen by its writer and director. Mrs. Juana V. Torreliza, the late principal of Cabra Elementary School, served as the girls de facto defender, mentor, and, oftentimes, spokesperson. Tim Albano, the founder of the now-defunct charity high school on the island (Magnificat Academy Foundation - 1977-1981), personally financed the painstaking research work behind, and the publication of, the book The Apparitions of Cabra Islet. Copies of this book can be found in the libraries of many Catholic colleges and schools, both in the Philippines and the United States, including the National Library of the Philippines and the USA Library of Congress. Many avid devotees of the Beautiful Lady on the hill of Burol have been urging the Catholic Church to initiate a rigorous examination and investigation of these apparitions. They also hope that Mr. Albano, or his heirs or friends, will soon come around to publishing the books chapters and photographs preferably in widely-disseminated online blogs. They also proposed scanning the whole book for Google Books, or perhaps even reprinting it for the new generations. The tiny chapel on the Apparition hill has been sadly neglected and is now badly dilapidated, its tin roof rusting and leaking, and its walls and windows decrepit and crumbling. The girls/seers became nurses and midwives, and they have successfully maintained their anonymity. They are now residing in far-flung provinces and countries.</p><br>
<h2>Administration</h2><br>
<p>The islands are administratively part of the province of Occidental Mindoro and are divided into two municipalities: Lubang and Looc. Lubang covers the northwestern half of Lubang Island (Cabra Island included), while Looc covers the remaining half of Lubang Island plus Ambil, Golo and the other islands. Looc Proper is divided into three major sections: BonBon, Gitna and Kanluran. These islands offer scenic delights, pristine waters, abundant and precious marine life, and scuba-diving opportunities. The coast lines boasts of white sand and unspoiled beauty.</p><br>
<h2>Economics</h2><br>
<p>Most of the population resides on Lubang Island, where Tilik Port is located. The main economic activity is fishing in the waters surrounding the islands and planting rice, garlic, peanut and vegetables. However, with the islands fine white-sand coastlines, tourism is growing in economic importance.</p><br>
<p>Whernside is a mountain in the Yorkshire Dales in Northern England. It is the highest of the Yorkshire Three Peaks, the other two being Ingleborough and Pen-y-ghent. It is the highest point in the ceremonial county of North Yorkshire Mickle Fell in southern Teesdale is the highest point within the boundaries of the historic county of Yorkshire.</p><br>
<p>and the historic West Riding of Yorkshire with the summit lying on the county border with Cumbria.</p><br>
<p>In shape Whernside forms a long ridge, running roughly north-north-east to south-south-west. The mountain is 10 km north west of Ingleton and 10 km north of Horton-in-Ribblesdale.</p><br>
<h2>Routes</h2><br>
<p>There is a right of way footpath running from the east at Ribblehead that heads north via Smithy Hill and Grain Ings before turning west to Knoutberry Haw and then south to Whernside itself. From the summit the right of way heads initially south, then steeply southwest down a stepped path to the area known as Bruntscar. If climbed as part of the Yorkshire Three Peaks Challenge (which is normally done anti-clockwise) Whernside will be climbed following the route up from Ribblehead to descend to Bruntscar.</p><br>
<p>There are, however, other routes up/down the mountain which are not rights of way.</p><br>
<p>A path heads directly west from the triangulation pillar to reach the road that is Deepdale Lane near White Shaw Moss.</p><br>
<p>An alternative route heads directly north across Knoutberry Haw to pass Whernside Tarns and reaches the Craven Way at Boot of the Wold.</p><br>
<p>Following the southern descent for 0.76 mi, instead of turning steeply southeast towards Bruntscar a path continues south running adjacent the wall passing Combe Scar and West Fell to reach the limestone pavements at Ewe&#39;s Top.</p><br>
<p>Finally, 275 yd south of the triangulation pillar an old route (partly fenced off) descends (initially very steeply) for 1.3 mi to reach a road 275 yd southwest of Winterscales Farm, this is the old route of the Three Peaks Challenge. Walkers should select this route with care as it is no longer maintained, boggy, badly eroded and requires extreme care over the steep ascent/descent. The current route of the Three Peaks fell race runs approximately 440 yd north of this old ascent along open moor.</p><br>
<p>All paths are on open access land and make an interesting change from the right of way ascents/descents.</p><br>
<p>A walk solely around Whernside starting at the junction of the Blea Moor and Gauber roads near the Station Inn at Ribblehead, to the top of Whernside and back via the bridleway from Bruntscar via the farms at Broadrake, Ivescar, Winterscales and Gunnerfleet (or the footpath from Blea Moor Sidings) is a distance of roughly 8.5 mi.</p><br>
<h2>General</h2><br>
<p>On a clear day the views from the summit to the west can be spectacular, with views of the Lake District and Morecambe Bay, including (with the aid of binoculars) Blackpool Tower, some 40 mi away.</p><br>
<p>Whernside lies about 2 mi northwest of Ribblehead Viaduct on the Settle–Carlisle Railway.</p><br>
<p>Whernside is sometimes confused with the lower peak of Great Whernside 17 mi away to the east of Whernside. The word "Whern" is believed to refer to querns (millstones) whilst "side" is derived from the Norse "sættr", meaning an area of summer pasture.</p><br>
<p>Ingleborough  is the second-highest mountain in the Yorkshire Dales. It is one of the Yorkshire Three Peaks, the other two being Whernside  and Pen-y-ghent . Ingleborough is frequently climbed as part of the Yorkshire Three Peaks Challenge, a 24 mi circular challenge walk starting and finishing in Horton in Ribblesdale. If done anti-clockwise Ingleborough is the last mountain climbed, and ascent is from Chapel-le-Dale.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The second part of the name Ingleborough is derived from the Old English word burh, meaning "a fortified place&quot in this case, a hill fort. On a small relatively flat area just below the top of Ingleborough the remains of an old walled enclosure have been discovered, containing the foundations of Iron Age huts.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Ingleborough is in the south-western corner of the Yorkshire Dales, at the highest point of a triangle of land with corners at Ingleton, Ribblehead and Settle. The hill is connected to its nearest higher neighbour, Whernside, by a low col or mountain pass at Ribblehead at approximately 296 m.</p><br>
<p>Ingleborough throws out a ridge to the north-east which develops into a summit, Simon Fell, and another summit further down, Park Fell. An ill-defined ridge going south-east from the summit breaks into two large areas of limestone plateau at about 1,300 ft; both plateaux contain summits and these are the subsidiary summits of Norber and Moughton. On the slopes of the former are the famed Norber Boulders. Continuing south-east the high land is broken by a divide carrying the minor road from Austwick to Helwith Bridge. On the other side of the divide the low summit of Smearsett Scar rises along with its subsidiaries, Pot Scar and Giggleswick Scar; from here the land falls away to the River Ribble at Settle.</p><br>
<p>On the western side of Ingleborough is a large limestone plateau appropriately known as White Scars. White Scar Caves run for 6.5 km below the plateau, and their entrance series has been developed as a show cave. The plateau is bounded by Raven Scar, the longest unbroken cliff in the district, and on top of it is the pothole of Meregill Hole. On the southern side (west of the Clapham path) is a similar plateau, containing potholes such as Fluted Hole and Pillar Hole.</p><br>
<p>The plateau to the north of Norber, an area known as The Allotment, is particularly rich in potholes; one of these, Long Kin East, can be followed without specialist caving equipment for 100 yd. Also here is Juniper Gulf, which descends 420 ft underground through an arduous rift, dominated by a small geological fault.</p><br>
<p>The Smearsett Scar region contains the Celtic Wall, the Ebbing and Flowing Well (which has now stopped ebbing and flowing) and a glacial hollow known as the Happy Valley.</p><br>
<h2>Ascents</h2><br>
<p>There are several popular hillwalking routes to its summit. The most frequently used starting point is probably the village of Ingleton, about 4 mi to the southwest. An ascent from here is about 7+1⁄2 mi there and back. The route follows a walled lane, Fell Lane, before emerging onto a flat area, Crina Bottom, scattered with potholes including the considerable Quaking Pot. A steep climb through the limestone cliffs leads to the summit.</p><br>
<p>The hill may also be climbed from Horton in Ribblesdale 6 mi to the east, following a route crossing extensive areas of limestone pavement in the region of Sulber Nick. This is the route of descent of the Three Peaks Walk and has been heavily improved by the National Trust, having changed in just thirty years from no path at all to a serious example of footpath erosion. Another route on this flank is from the isolated farmstead of Crummack.</p><br>
<p>There is also a route from Clapham that follows the Ingleborough Estate nature trail, before passing the Craven Fault, the showcave of Ingleborough Cave, the ravine of Trow Gill and the pothole of Gaping Gill. It then crosses a marshy area and climbs up to the shoulder of Little Ingleborough before following the ridge to the summit. The return to Clapham can be varied by taking the Horton-in-Ribblesdale path for 2 mi before striking south through more limestone pavement to the small top of Norber; a descent past the famed Norber erratics (Norber Boulders) finishes a walk of 11.5 mi that Wainwright considered the finest walk in the Yorkshire Dales.</p><br>
<p>An alternative route from the south-west side of the triangle starts at Newby Cote, roughly a mile northwest of Clapham on the minor road heading towards Ingleton. This path proceeds ENE until it joins the main path from Clapham about a mile from the summit.</p><br>
<p>There is a northern route from the Hill Inn at Chapel-le-Dale, the route of ascent used by the Three Peaks Walk and the shortest way up the mountain, being just 3 mi from village to summit. An interesting walk across a limestone plateau with many caves, including Great Douk Cave and Meregill Hole, is followed by a steep and tedious climb to the shoulder of the subsidiary summit of Simon Fell at 2,000 ft, a mile to the north-east of the summit. The passage from here to the summit is high-level and exhilarating, but requires some scrambling.</p><br>
<p>Finally there are unwaymarked routes heading NE across Simon Fell and Souther Scales Fell both of which reach a steep descent just beyond the triangulation pillar on Park Fell to reach the Right of Way at New Close. Both routes give commanding views of the area.</p><br>
<h2>The summit</h2><br>
<p>The summit is a broad plateau half a mile in circumference, slightly convex, higher to the north-west than to the south-east, and carpeted with dry turf. There is an Ordnance Survey trig point (number S. 5619) at the highest point, near the western corner. Just to the north is a well-built windshelter (cross-shaped to provide shelter whichever way the wind is blowing) with a view indicator or toposcope built into its centre. Between them is a large cairn. At the point where the Ingleton path reaches the summit rim is an even larger cairn; this, remarkably, is the remains of a battlemented round tower (a hospice), built in 1830. The celebrations on the day of its opening ceremony became so alcoholic, however, that parts of it were thrown down there and then, the rest being destroyed later. Along the northern and eastern edges of the plateau are the tumbled remains of a wall, once believed to have been a Roman military camp but now known to be an Iron Age hill fort. For the view, which is far-reaching and superb, see here. The hill fort, which covers 15 acre and of which the defensive wall can still be seen although much robbed for stone, contains the remains of several hut circles. It is now thought that this was in fact Celtic, built by the Brigantes, the largest amalgamation of tribes in Iron Age Britain. The fort was known to the Romans as the Kings Fort. It may be that this was a base for Venutius after his divorce from Cartimandua, the Brigantes Queen who was a supporter of the Roman invaders, unlike Venutius who led several rebellions. What we do know is that this fort was used all year, which was unusual for such a location, but at the time of the Romans the climate was much milder, the Romans for example cultivating grapes in Newcastle.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The striking appearance of Ingleborough from all directions and from a great distance is due to the unusual geology of the underlying rock. The base of the mountain is composed of ancient Silurian and Ordovician rocks which are exposed in the valley bottoms to the north of Ingleton. A belt of Carboniferous Limestone, the Great Scar Limestone, some 600 ft thick, lies on top of this. Due to the limestones permeability, all the streams flowing down from the mountain are engulfed upon reaching it, falling into a number of potholes. Above lies the layered Yoredale Series of sedimentary rocks, predominantly shale and sandstone, and generally concealed by the peat but revealed in the escarpments about 1,700 ft up. There are also layers of harder limestone sandwiched between the softer rocks which have been eroded faster, and which protect the layers beneath them, leading to the tiered&#39; effect. The whole mountain, however, is protected from erosion by a cap of Millstone Grit approximately 100 ft tall. The rock above the Millstone Grit layer has been eroded away, which explains the comparative flatness of the summit. A good explanation of the geology and scenery of the area is given in Waltham.</p><br>
<h2>The view</h2><br>
<p>Important mountain peaks visible from Ingleborough are listed here, clockwise from north, with their distance in miles and bearing in degrees. The furthest peak visible is Manod Mawr in Snowdonia, North Wales, 103 mi away on a bearing of 218 degrees.</p><br>
<h3>North to east</h3><br>
<p>Wild Boar Fell, 15 miles, 5 degrees</p><br>
<p>Mickle Fell, 31 miles, 7 degrees</p><br>
<p>High Seat, 17 miles, 12 degrees</p><br>
<p>Great Knoutberry Hill, 8 miles, 21 degrees</p><br>
<p>Great Shunner Fell, 16 miles, 26 degrees</p><br>
<p>Lovely Seat, 15 miles, 34 degrees</p><br>
<p>Dodd Fell Hill, 9 miles, 45 degrees</p><br>
<p>Yockenthwaite Moor, 11 miles, 69 degrees</p><br>
<p>Buckden Pike, 14 miles, 79 degrees</p><br>
<p>Plover Hill, 7 miles, 87 degrees</p><br>
<h3>East to south</h3><br>
<p>Great Whernside, 16 miles, 92 degrees</p><br>
<p>Pen-y-ghent, 6 miles, 98 degrees</p><br>
<p>Fountains Fell, 8 miles, 105 degrees</p><br>
<p>Thorpe Fell Top, 19 miles, 119 degrees</p><br>
<p>Ilkley Moor, 30 miles, 128 degrees</p><br>
<p>Rye Loaf Hill, 10 miles, 132 degrees</p><br>
<p>Boulsworth Hill, 27 miles, 155 degrees</p><br>
<p>Kinder Scout, 58 miles, 159 degrees</p><br>
<p>Shining Tor, 65 miles, 166 degrees</p><br>
<p>Pendle Hill, 21 miles, 169 degrees</p><br>
<h3>South to west</h3><br>
<p>Winter Hill, 38 miles, 188 degrees</p><br>
<p>White Hill, 11 miles, 203 degrees</p><br>
<p>Fair Snape Fell, 19 miles, 208 degrees</p><br>
<p>Moel Siabod, 99 miles, 221 degrees</p><br>
<p>Ward&#39;s Stone, 13 miles, 223 degrees</p><br>
<p>Carnedd Llewelyn, 95 miles, 224 degrees</p><br>
<p>Caton Moor, 12 miles, 236 degrees</p><br>
<p>Warton Crag, 15 miles, 266 degrees</p><br>
<h3>West to north</h3><br>
<p>Snaefell, 84 miles, 275 degrees</p><br>
<p>Black Combe, 38 miles, 280 degrees</p><br>
<p>Old Man of Coniston, 33 miles, 296 degrees</p><br>
<p>Scafell Pike, 38 miles, 302 degrees</p><br>
<p>Great Gable, 40 miles, 304 degrees</p><br>
<p>Grasmoor, 45 miles, 309 degrees</p><br>
<p>Gragareth, 4½ miles, 312 degrees</p><br>
<p>Helvellyn, 35 miles, 315 degrees</p><br>
<p>High Street, 29 miles, 321 degrees</p><br>
<p>Great Coum, 6 miles, 337 degrees</p><br>
<p>The Calf, 15 miles, 342 degrees</p><br>
<p>Yarlside, 15 miles, 347 degrees</p><br>
<p>Cross Fell, 37 miles, 355 degrees</p><br>
<p>Whernside, 4 miles, 359 degrees</p><br>
<p>Pen-y-ghent or Penyghent is a fell in the Yorkshire Dales, England. It is the smallest of the Yorkshire Three Peaks at 694 m; the other two being Ingleborough and Whernside. It lies 3 km east of Horton in Ribblesdale. It features a number of interesting geological features such as Hunt Pot, and further down, Hull Pot. The waters that flow in have created an extensive cave system which rises at Brants Gill head. The Pennine Way links the summit to the village; the route is around 5 km in length as the Way curves initially to the north before turning east to reach the summit.</p><br>
<p>The more direct route that traverses the southern nose of the hill is the route usually taken by those attempting the Yorkshire Three Peaks Challenge, as the walk is usually (but not exclusively) done in an anti-clockwise direction starting and finishing in Horton in Ribblesdale. The other main hillwalking route on the hill heads north from the summit to reach Plover Hill before descending to join Foxup Road, a bridleway at the head of Littondale.</p><br>
<p>Pen-y-Ghent is made up of a millstone grit top sat upon a bed of carboniferous limestone. The summit acts as a watershed with water flowing east into the River Skirfare and on through to the Humber estuary, and water flowing west dropping into the River Ribble, to ultimately flow into the Irish Sea.</p><br>
<p>In the Cumbric language, exactly as in todays Welsh, Pen meant top or head, and y is most likely the definite article (the), exactly as in Modern Welsh y. These elements are common in placenames throughout the island, and especially in Wales (compare Penyberth end of the hedge/copse, or Penyffordd head of the road/way, etc.). The element ghent is more obscure, however: it could be taken to be edge or border. The name Pen-y-ghent could therefore mean Hill on the border (compare Kent). Alternatively, ghent could mean wind or winds – from the closest Welsh transliteration, gwynt (wind). Thus it might mean simply Head of the Winds&#39;. It is also possible that ghent may have been a tribal name and that the hill may have once been an important tribal centre. It is also acceptable to write the name as Pen y Ghent rather than Pen-y-ghent.</p><br>
<p>The Aru Islands  are a group of about ninety-five low-lying islands in the Maluku province of eastern Indonesia. They also form a regency of Maluku province, with a land area of 8,152.42 square kilometres. At the 2101 Census the Regency had a population of 84,138; the latest official estimate  was 93,722.</p><br>
<h2>Administration</h2><br>
<p>The regency is divided into seven districts (kecamatan), tabulated below with their areas (in sq.km) and their 2010 Census populations.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The islands are the easternmost in Maluku province, and are located in the Arafura Sea southwest of New Guinea and north of Australia. The total area of the islands is 8,152.42 km (3,147 sq mi). The largest island is Tanahbesar (also called Wokam); Dobo, the chief port of the islands, is on Wamar, just off Tanahbesar. Other main islands are Kola, Kobroor, Maikoor, and Trangan. The main islands rise to low hills, and are separated by meandering channels. Geologically, the group is part of the Australian continent, along with New Guinea, Tanimbar, Tasmania and Timor on the Indo-Australian Plate.</p><br>
<p>Aru is covered by a mix of tropical moist broadleaf forests, savanna, and mangroves. The Islands lie on the Australia-New Guinea continental shelf, and were connected to Australia and New Guinea by land when sea levels were lower during the ice ages. The flora and fauna of Aru are part of the Australasia ecozone, and closely related to that of New Guinea. Aru is part, together with much of western New Guinea, of the Vogelkop-Aru lowland rain forests terrestrial ecoregion.</p><br>
<p>As part of the political and administrative decentralization of Indonesia since Suharto stepped down in 1998, the Aru Islands are now a separate residency (kabupaten), headquartered at Dobo, split off from the residency of Central Maluku.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>Pearl farming provides a major source of income for the islands. The Aru pearl industry has been criticized in national media for allegedly maintaining exploitive debt structures that bind the local men who dive for pearls to outside boat owners and traders in an unequal relationship.</p><br>
<p>Other export products include sago, coconuts, tobacco, mother of pearl, trepang (an edible sea cucumber, which is dried and cured), tortoiseshell, and bird-of-paradise plumes.</p><br>
<p>In November 2011, the Government of Indonesia awarded two oil-and-gas production-sharing contracts (PSC) about two hundred kilometres west of the Aru Islands to BP. The two adjacent offshore exploration PSCs, West Aru I and II, cover an area of about 16,400 square kilometres with water depths ranging from 200 metres and 2,500 metres. BP plans to acquire seismic data over the two blocks.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Aru Islands have a long history as a part of extensive trading networks throughout what is now eastern Indonesia. Precolonial links were especially strong to the Banda Islands, and Bugis and Makasarese traders also visited regularly.</p><br>
<p>The islands were sighted and also possibly visited by some Portuguese navigators, such as Martim Afonso de Melo, in 1522-24, who sighted the islands and wintered on a nearby island or of the Aru archipelago itself, and possibly by Gomes de Sequeira, in 1526, as is pointed out in the cartography of the time. The Spanish navigator Álvaro de Saavedra sighted the islands on 12 June 1528, when trying to return from Tidore to New Spain.</p><br>
<p>The islands were colonized by the Dutch beginning 1623, though initially the Dutch East India Company was one of several trading groups in the area, with limited influence over the islands&#39; internal affairs.</p><br>
<p>In 1857 the famous naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace visited the islands. His visit later made him realise, that the Aru islands must have been connected by a landbridge to mainland New Guinea during the ice age.</p><br>
<p>In the nineteenth century, Dobo, Aru&#39;s largest town, temporarily became an important regional trading center, serving as a meeting point for Dutch, Makasarese, Chinese, and other traders. The period from the 1880s to 1917 saw a backlash against this outside influence, by a spiritually-based movement among local residents to rid the islands of outsiders.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>The islands had a population of 84,138 at the 2010 Census. Most indigenous islanders are of mixed Malay and Papuan descent. Fourteen languages - Barakai, Batuley, Dobel, Karey, Koba, Kola, Kompane, Lola, Lorang, Manombai, Mariri, East Tarangan, West Tarangan, and Ujir - are indigenous to Aru. They belong to the Central Malayo-Polynesian languages, and are related to the other languages of Maluku, Nusa Tenggara, and Timor. Ambonese Malay is also spoken on Wamar. All are members of the Austronesian language family.</p><br>
<p>The population is mostly Christian with a small Muslim minority. Figures cited by Glenn Dolcemascolo for 1993 were approximately 90% Protestant, 6% Catholic, and 4% Muslim. A more recent report from 2007 suggested that the 4% Muslim figure may only relate to the indigenous population and that the actual percentage of Muslims may be significantly higher. Islam is thought to have been introduced to the islands in the late 15th century. The Dutch brought Christianity in the 17th and 18th centuries but much of the conversion of the population to Christianity did not take place until the 20th century.</p><br>
<p>The Kai Islands  of Indonesia are a group of islands located in the southeastern part of the Maluku Islands in Maluku Province. The Malakus have also been known as the Spice Islands due to regionally specific plants such as nutmeg, mace, and cloves that originally intrigued the European nations of the 16th century.</p><br>
<p>Though originally Melanesian, many islanders were exterminated in the 17th century during the spice wars, particularly in the Banda Islands. A second influx of Austronesian immigrants began in the early twentieth century under the Dutch and continued in the Indonesian era.</p><br>
<h2>Administrative divisions</h2><br>
<p>The Kai (or Kei) Islands consist of the two distinct second-tier administrations, both within the Maluku Province. The Southeast Maluku Regency (Maluku Tenggara) is sub-divided into six districts (kecamatan). Though geographically within the Kei Islands, the city of Tual forms a regency-level administration and is not within the Southeast Maluku Regency; it includes a number of islands within the geographical Kei Islands, and it is itself sub-divided into four districts (kecamatan).</p><br>
<p>These two entities, with their administrative capitals, are listed below with their areas and their populations at the 2010 Census and at the latest (2014) Estimates:</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Kei Islands are a part of the Wallacea, the group of Indonesian islands that are separated by deep water from both the Asian and Australian continental shelves, and were never linked to either continent. As a result, the Kei Islands have few native mammals and are a part of the Banda Sea Islands moist deciduous forests ecoregion. Kei Besar in particular is mountainous and densely forested. Kei is also famous for the beauty of its beaches, notably in Pasir Panjang.</p><br>
<p>Inhabitants called the islands Nuhu Evav (Evav Islands) or Tanat Evav (Evav Land), but they were known as Kei to people from neighboring islands. The islands are located on the edge of the Banda Sea, south of the Bird&#39;s Head Peninsula of New Guinea, west of the Aru Islands, and northeast of the Tanimbar Islands.</p><br>
<p>The Kai islands are made up of numerous islands, including:</p><br>
<p>(A) Within the Southeast Maluku Regency</p><br>
<p>Kei Besar or Nuhu Yuut or Nusteen (Great Kei)</p><br>
<p>Kei Kecil or Nuhu Roa or Nusyanat (Little Kei)</p><br>
<p>Tanimbar Kai or Tnebar Evav</p><br>
<p>(B) Within the City of Tual</p><br>
<p>Kai Dulah or Du</p><br>
<p>Dulah Laut or Du Roa</p><br>
<p>Kuur</p><br>
<p>Taam</p><br>
<p>Tayandu Islands (Tahayad) groups</p><br>
<p>The Kei Islands&#39; total land area is 1,286.2 km², and had a population of 154,524 at the 2010 Census; the latest official estimate (as at January 2014) was 172,126.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The islands are located in a tropical area near the equator where there is little change in the weather throughout the year. The year round temperature is usually around 30 &deg;C, with the lowest temperatures reaching 18 &deg;C. There is a dry season that lasts from April to September, during which rain is scarce.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<h3>History</h3><br>
<p>Local history holds that ancestors of contemporary Kai islanders came from Bali, part of the expanding Majapahit kingdom from the western archipelago. The village of Ohoi-Ewur (first Raja Ewab: Raja Ohoi-Ewur=Raja Tabtut) on Kai Kecil or Nuhuroa island was the arrival point for the Balinese royal family and their army. They stayed in the village with local residents. As a result, Ohoi-ewur became a seat of government, where the local law (Larvul Ngabal) – Red Blood and Balinese Spear – was developed at the initiative of the royal princess D it Sakmas.</p><br>
<p>Evidence for these stories include an inheritance and a harbor named Bal Sorbay (Bali Surabaya) on Kai Kecil which is, presumably, the harbor at which the royals arrived.</p><br>
<p>It is recognized by Kai islanders that some of their ancestors also came from other places such as Sumbawa island (Sumbau), Buton (Vutun) in Sulawesi, Seram (Seran) and Gorom (Ngoran) islands in the Central Moluccas, and the Sultanates of Jailolo (Dalo) and Ternate (Ternat) as well.</p><br>
<p>The tiny island of Tanimbarkei is not part of Tanimbar, as the name might suggest but is, in fact, one of the Kai Islands. It is inhabited by fewer than 1000 very traditional people. Half of the population call themselves Hindus, but in fact are more or less practicing ancestor worship.</p><br>
<p>After the 1999 clashes between the Muslim and Christian populations in Ambon, similar inter-communal clashes also swept through Kai, but quickly calmed down.</p><br>
<p>All of the islands depend on 22 ratshcaap, or traditional local leaders called Rat or Raja, as kings of customary law.</p><br>
<h3>Languages</h3><br>
<p>The official language in the Kai Islands is Indonesian, although local languages also exist between regions.</p><br>
<p>Three Austronesian languages are spoken on the Kai Islands; Keiese is the most widely spoken, in 207 villages on Kai Kecil, Kai Besar, and surrounding islands. Kurese is spoken on Kur Island and nearby Kaimeer, where Kai is used as a lingua franca. Bandanese is spoken in the villages of Banda-Eli (Wadan El) and Banda-Elat (Wadan Elat) on the west and northeastern side of Kai Besar. Banda speakers originally came from the Banda Islands, but the language is no longer spoken there. There is no native writing system for the Keiese Language. Dutch Catholic missionaries write the language using a variation of the Roman alphabet.</p><br>
<h3>Musical Instruments</h3><br>
<p>Some Kai musical instruments include:</p><br>
<p>Savarngil: A small native flute from 10 to 20 centimeters (4 to 8 inches) long, open at both ends and having six fingerholes placed along the pipe made of bamboo and are keyless.</p><br>
<p>Tiva: Single headed drums, consist of a calf skin membrane which is stretched over an enclosed space or over one of the ends of a hollow vessel.</p><br>
<p>Dada: A medium-size gong 30 to 38 cm in size, with a crashing sound, have a raised boss or nipple in the center.</p><br>
<h3>Religion</h3><br>
<p>The major religion that dominates these is Christianity. The Kai are among the few islands in the region to have more Catholics than Protestants; they are regarded as the center of Catholicism in all of Maluku.</p><br>
<p>The Muslims present in this region are a smaller community, and they follow a mild form of Islam because they rarely have veiled women and mosques are low key affairs too.</p><br>
<p>Half of the people who live on the small island of Tanimbarkei practice a variant of the Hindu religion, which involves a form of ancestor worship.</p><br>
<h3>Mythology</h3><br>
<p>Their story of creation is a type of earth-diver myth that involves sending a dog down to the earth, who brings up his sandy paws. There were three brothers and two sisters in the upper sky-world. While fishing one day, Parpara, the youngest of the brothers, lost a fish-hook which he had borrowed from Hian, his oldest brother. Angered by the loss of the hook, Hian demanded that it be found and returned to him. After much fruitless search, the Parpara met a fish who asked him what his trouble was, and who, on learning the facts, promised to aid in the search. At length they discovered another fish who was very ill because of something stuck in its throat. The object proved to be the long-lost hook, which the friendly fish delivered to Parpara, who thus was able to restore it to its owner.Parpara, however, determined to have his revenge upon his brother, and so he secretly fastened a bamboo vessel full of palm liquor above Hian&#39;s bed in such a way that when the latter rose, he would be almost certain to upset it. The expected happened, and Parpara then demanded of his brother that he return to him the spilled liquor. Hian endeavoured, of course fruitlessly, to gather it up, and in his efforts dug so deeply into the ground that he made an opening clear through the sky-world.Wondering what might lie below, the brothers determined to tie one of their dogs to a long rope and lower him through the aperture; and when they had done this, and the dog had been drawn up again, they found white sand sticking to his feet, whereupon they resolved to go down themselves, although the other inhabitants of the heaven-world refused to accompany them thither. Sliding down the rope, the three brothers and one of the sisters, together with their four dogs, safely reached the world which lay below, and which was thus discovered for the first time. As the second sister was descending, however, one of the brothers chanced to look up, at which his sister was so ashamed that she shook the rope and was hauled up by the other sky-people. In this way the three brothers with their sister were the first occupants of the world and became the ancestors of the human race.</p><br>
<h3>Agriculture</h3><br>
<p>The soil on Kai Kecil is of poor quality; slash-and-burn agriculture is still common. Fishing is usually done around Trepang, and cultured pearls are harvested in Kai Kecil.</p><br>
<h2>Meiti Kei</h2><br>
<p>A phenomenon that the seawater recedes up to 6 kilometers, so someone can go to other island by walking is done every year and is called as Meiti Kei. In 2017, the phenomenon will occur on October 22 to 23.</p><br>
<p>The Springfield Armory, located in the city of Springfield, Massachusetts, was the primary center for the manufacture of United States military firearms from 1777 until its closing in 1968. The site is preserved as the Springfield Armory National Historic Site, Western Massachusetts only unit of the national park system. It features the worlds largest collection of historic American firearms.</p><br>
<p>Famous first as the United States primary arsenal during the American Revolutionary War, and then as the scene of a confrontation during Shays Rebellion, the Springfield Armory in the 19th and 20th centuries became the site of numerous technological innovations of global importance, including interchangeable parts, the assembly line style of mass production, and modern business practices, such as hourly wages. Numerous firearm models produced at the Springfield Armory from 1794 to 1968 were referred to as "Springfield rifles".</p><br>
<h2>Founding (1777)</h2><br>
<p>Local and colonial militia used the bluff on which the Springfield Armory would become located during the 17th century for militia training, particularly after the Attack on Springfield during King Philip&#39;s War.</p><br>
<p>In 1777, during the American Revolutionary War, George Washington scouted and approved the site of the Springfield Armory, after it was referred to him by General Henry Knox, his artillery chief. Although a small town at the time, Springfield, Massachusetts, offered obvious geographical advantages—it lay at the intersection of three rivers (including the major Connecticut River), and four major roads headed toward New York City, Boston, Albany, New York, and Montreal. Additionally, Springfield is located just north of the Connecticut River&#39;s first waterfall (Enfield Falls), which is too steep to be navigated by ocean-going vessels. Thus, Springfield was the first town on the Connecticut River protected from attack by seafaring naval vessels.</p><br>
<p>The Armory site itself sits atop a high bluff like a citadel, overlooking a wide stretch of the Connecticut River, at its confluence with the Westfield River. General Knox concurred with Washington that "the plain just above Springfield is perhaps one of the most proper spots on every account" for the location of an arsenal.</p><br>
<p>In 1777, patriot colonists established "The Arsenal at Springfield" to manufacture cartridges and gun carriages for the war effort. During the Revolution, the arsenal stored muskets, cannon, and other weapons. Patriots built barracks, shops, storehouses, and a magazine. Some doubt exists that the colonists manufactured arms during the Revolutionary War. After the war, the Army kept the facility to store arms for future needs. By the 1780s, the Springfield Arsenal functioned as a major ammunition and weapons arsenal.</p><br>
<p>Some time later, when manufacturing became important, the arsenal expanded to a second area south and west in Springfield, where water power was available. Around that time, the Mill River was dammed to form a mile-long lake called Watershops Pond. The main shops were behind the dam and a foundry was built below it. This factory was modernized, and the greater part of machining for Springfield and Garand rifles was conducted in it.</p><br>
<p>George Washington appointed David Ames (originally from Bridgewater, Massachusetts) as first superintendent of the armory. His father Capt. John Ames was a blacksmith who had provided guns to the Colonial army.</p><br>
<h2>Shays' Rebellion (1787)</h2><br>
<p>In 1786 and 1787, American Revolutionary War veteran Daniel Shays led an armed, populist uprising that attempted to overthrow the Government of Massachusetts. On January 25, 1787, thousands of Shays&#39; Regulators marched on the Springfield Armory, hoping to seize its weaponry and force a change of government.</p><br>
<p>That day the Springfield Armory was defended by state militia, who fired grape shot at the rebels, forcing them to flee. This confrontation proved decisive, as Shays&#39; Rebellion was crushed soon thereafter, and some of its participants tried for treason.</p><br>
<p>Shays Rebellion directly influenced the United States Constitutional Convention, with future USA President George Washington citing it as his reason for coming out of retirement. During the debates over the USA Constitution, in encouraging a stronger Federal government, future USA President James Madison cautioned the attendees that "the rebellion in Massachusetts is a warning, gentlemen."</p><br>
<h2>Production (1795–1968)</h2><br>
<p>In 1793, the National Arsenal contained brass ordnance, howitzers, traveling carriages, shot strapt, canisters filled, quilted grape, iron shot, shells, powder, musket ball, cylinders, caps, paper cartridges, fuzes filled, muskets, swords, various military stores, and implements. In 1795, the Springfield Armory produced the new nation&#39;s first musket.</p><br>
<p>Fueled by the Springfield Armory, the City of Springfield quickly became a national center for invention and development. In 1819 Thomas Blanchard developed a special lathe for the consistent mass production of rifle stocks. Thomas Blanchard worked at Springfield Armory for 5 years. The lathe enabled an unskilled workman to quickly and easily turn out identical irregular shapes. The large drum turned two wheels: a friction wheel that followed the contours of the metal rifle pattern, and the cutting wheel that imitated the movements of the friction wheel to make an exact replica of the pattern in wood. In the 1840s the old flintlock gave way to a percussion ignition system that increased the reliability and simplicity of longarms.</p><br>
<p>The Springfield Armory was largely involved in the growth and influence of the Industrial Revolution. Much of this grew out of the military&#39;s fascination with interchangeable parts, which was based on the theory that it would be easier to simply replace firearm parts than make battlefield repairs. Mass production of truly interchangeable parts demanded greater use of machines, improved gauging, quality control, and division of labor; all characteristics of the Industrial Revolution. From these individual components, the concept of the assembly line was devised.</p><br>
<p>The Springfield Armory also contributed to improved business management techniques. Colonel Roswell Lee, hired as superintendent in 1815, brought centralized authority, cost accounting for payroll, time, and materials, and increased discipline to a manufacturing environment—all business practices still in use today.</p><br>
<p>In 1843, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow visited the Armory and wrote his poem "The Arsenal at Springfield." The anti-war poem described the rows of finished guns, by that point 1,000,000 stockpiled there, stored vertically in open racks: "Like a huge organ, rise the burnished arms."</p><br>
<p>With the destruction of the Harpers Ferry Armory early in the American Civil War, the Springfield Armory was briefly the only government manufacturer of arms, until the Rock Island Arsenal was established in 1862.</p><br>
<p>In 1865, Master Armorer Erskine Allin introduced the "Allin Conversion," which incorporated the far more advanced design of breech-loading into the now-obsolete muzzleloaders, thereby extending their service life. In 1891 a new function was assigned to the Armory—it became the army&#39;s main laboratory for the development and testing of new small arms.</p><br>
<p>One of the most distinctive elements of the Armory is the fence surrounding the site, which was started after the Civil War and completed in 1890. Unable to find funding for the purchase of a fence, Major James W. Ripley requested obsolete cannons from government storage, some from the Revolutionary War. He had the cannons sent to a local foundry to be melted down. The foundry kept some of the iron as payment, and the remainder was cast into 9-foot palings, formed as pikes and spearheads which were then sunk into a red sandstone base.</p><br>
<p>During the Spanish–American War, it was recognized that the Spanish Mauser Model of 1893, exhibited characteristics superior to the "trapdoor" Springfield and Krag–Jørgensen rifles carried by the United States troops. On August 15, 1900, Springfield Armory completed an experimental magazine rifle which they believed to be an improvement over the Krag. They fashioned a clip loading magazine rifle in which the cartridges were contained within the stock, preventing damage to an otherwise exposed magazine. It was approved for production in as the Model 1903. Mauser later sued for patent infringement and won royalties from Springfield.</p><br>
<p>By the time that the United States entered World War I, approximately 843,239 standard service Model 1903 rifles had been manufactured. However, this was insufficient to arm USA troops for an undertaking of the magnitude of World War I. During the war Springfield Armory produced over 265,620 Model 1903 rifles. In addition, the War Department contracted for production of the M1917 Enfield Rifle to help aid American troops. These, along with the additional 47,251 rifles produced by the Rock Island Arsenal and the weapons already in service, were enough to supply the war effort. During World War I the Springfield Armory produced ≈25,000 M1911 pistols before all facilities were dedicated to production of M1903 rifles.</p><br>
<p>In 1919, when John Garand was 31, he came to Springfield, where he worked to develop a semi-automatic rifle. Over the next five years many designs were submitted for the rifle, but none met the armys rigid specifications. In 1924, Garand offered a design that was approved for further testing. This was the famous M1, or "Garand rifle" as it came to be known. The army adopted the rifle in 1936, and production began the next year. This began what was to become the greatest production effort in the armorys history: during the entire production history of the M1 rifle, the Springfield Armory produced over 4.5 million of them.</p><br>
<p>The M1&#39;s accuracy and durability in battle earned it high praise. General Douglas MacArthur reported on the M1 to the Ordnance Department during heavy fighting on Bataan that "Under combat conditions it operated with no mechanical defects and when used in foxholes did not develop stoppages from dust or dirt. It has been in almost constant action for as much as a week without cleaning or lubrication." Further testament to the M1s role in combat was given by another well-respected military officer, General George S. Patton, Jr., who reported to the Army Ordnance Department on January 26, 1945, "In my opinion, the M1 Rifle is the greatest battle implement ever devised." In the face of overwhelming odds, the capability of the M1 rifle to deliver superior firepower would most often carry the day.</p><br>
<p>The last small arm developed by the Armory was the M14. The M14 has evolved over the years into a more modern sniper rifle—the M21.</p><br>
<p>By the time the USA was involved in the Vietnam War, Springfield Armory developed not only rifles but machine guns for ground and air use, grenade launchers, and associated equipment. Many weapons were not manufactured at the Armory, but plans and specifications were drawn up for the use of private contractors who built them elsewhere.</p><br>
<h2>Closure and rebirth as a National Historic Site (1968–present)</h2><br>
<p>In 1968, USA Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara announced the closure of the Springfield Armory. Outer portions of the armory were sold off, including the "Water Shops" production facilities, which are listed on the National Register of Historic Places as the Water Shops Armory. The core site was preserved and the property was turned over to the city and state.</p><br>
<p>It is now the Springfield Armory National Historic Site, and is managed and operated by the National Park Service. As of 2011, the 35 acres behind the Springfield Armory (and several of its former buildings) house Springfield Technical Community College (STCC). STCC is the only "technical" community college in Massachusetts, and aims to continue the legacy of technological innovation at the Springfield Armory site.</p><br>
<p>The Main Arsenal Building and the Commandants House were extensively renovated by Eastern General Contractors of Springfield, MA between 1987 and 1991. The Main Arsenal now houses the Springfield Armory Museum, which includes the Benton Small Arms Collection, one of the largest collections of weaponry.</p><br>
<h2>Licensing the name "Springfield Armory"</h2><br>
<p>In 1974, the Springfield Armory name was licensed to Robert Reese, to form Springfield Armory, Inc., a company that manufactures semi-automatic versions of the M14 rifle and M1911 pistol. The company is not located in or near Springfield, Massachusetts and has no direct association with the original Springfield Armory. The current Springfield Armory, Inc., based out of Geneseo, Illinois, manufactures several of its weapons on the exact blueprints and to identical specifications as the original government owned Springfield Armory. Springfield Armory, Inc. has expanded its line of firearms to include modern day sporting rifles and polymer pistols as well as Historical American icons, namely the M14 and M1911.</p><br>
<p>The Devil&#39;s Sea, also known as the Dragon&#39;s Triangle, the Formosa  Triangle and the "Pacific Bermuda Triangle", is a region of the Pacific around Miyake Island, about 100 km south of Tokyo. The Devil&#39;s sea is sometimes considered a paranormal location, though the veracity of these claims has been questioned. The size and area varies with the report , with various reports placing it 110 km from an unspecified part of Japan&#39;s east coast, 480 km from the coast, and even near Iwo Jima, 1,200 km from the coast.</p><br>
<p>The Japanese research vessel that Berlitz named, Kaiyo Maru No 5, had a crew of 31 aboard. While investigating activity of an undersea volcano, Myōjin-shō, about 300 km south of the Devil&#39;s Sea, it was destroyed by an eruption on 24 September 1952. Some wreckage was recovered. At least one ship sent an SOS. The other seven boats were small fishing boats lost between April 1949 and October 1953 somewhere between Miyake Island and Iwo Jima, a distance of 1,200 km.</p><br>
<h2>Criticisms</h2><br>
<p>In 1995, American author Larry Kusche published The Bermuda Triangle Mystery Solved, debunking Berlitz’s claims about both the Bermuda Triangle and Dragon’s Triangle. Kusche’s research claimed that Berlitz’s military vessels were actually fishing vessels, and some of those listed by Berlitz sank outside the area defined by the Dragon’s Triangle. Kusche also wrote that the Japanese research vessel carried not 100 personnel, but only 31 and that an undersea volcano destroyed it on September 24, 1952.</p><br>
<p>In Daniel Cohens 1974 book Curses, Hexes & Spells, its reported that legends of the danger of the Dragon’s Triangle go back for centuries in Japan. Its most famous casualty was the No. 5 Kaiyō-Maru, a scientific research vessel, which disappeared with the loss of all hands on September 24, 1953. With such a dramatic history, one would expect there to be all sorts of information on the subject, especially in Japan. A search completed by Skeptoid author Brian Dunning for books, newspaper, and magazine articles on the Dragon’s Triangle came up completely empty, until a full 20 years after the loss of the Kaiyō-Maru. Apparently, the story (even the very existence of this legendary named region) was not invented until very recently.</p><br>
<p>Research also explores natural environmental changes, as the cause of such controversial anomalies in the Dragon’s Triangle. One of these explanations is the vast field of methane hydrates present on the bottom of the ocean in the Dragon’s Triangle area. Methane clathrates (methane hydrates gas) will “explode” when it rises above 18 °C (64 °F). Methane hydrates gas are described as icelike deposites that break off from the bottom and rise, forming bubbles on the surface of the water. These gas eruptions can interrupt buoyancy and can easily sink a ship, leaving no trace of debris. Another explanation for this “paranormal” activity could be the undersea volcanoes that are very common in this area. It is quite characteristic for small islands in the Dragon’s Triangle to frequently disappear and new islands appear due to both volcanoes and seismic activity. It should also be noted that because the location of the Dragon’s Triangle is not plotted on any official world map, the size and perimeter vary from one author to another author.</p><br>
<p>Campus Club was one of the undergraduate eating clubs at Princeton University. Located on the corner of Washington Road and Prospect Avenue, Campus was founded in 1900. It was one of the eating clubs that abandoned the selective bicker process to choose members non-selectively, a status it held for over twenty years.</p><br>
<p>In an attempt to restore the waning popularity of the club, the club&#39;s board pressured the undergraduate officers to reinstate bicker in 2004, causing Campus to become one of six selective clubs (out of eleven total clubs). However, due to the unpopularity of bicker among its members, the club returned to being a sign-in club in the spring of 2005. Facing another year of exceptionally low membership and resulting financial trouble, Campus Club closed later the same year.</p><br>
<p>In November 2005, the former members and alumni of Campus Club voted to donate the building to the University, under the condition that the 11,000 ft&sup2; mansion remain a social venue for Princeton students.</p><br>
<p>After undergoing renovations for over two years, Campus Club reopened on September 18, 2009, as a clubhouse open to all members of the Princeton community.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>During the 1900-1901 school year, a number of undergraduates from the now-defunct Yama and Ovando Clubs took a lease on a small house on Olden Street in Princeton. Called "The Incubator," the undergraduates used this house as a temporary location while they searched for a more permanent clubhouse.</p><br>
<p>In January 1901, the newly elected members of Campus Club began negotiations to purchase the residence of Professor Andrew Fleming West, which was located at the corner of Washington Road and Prospect Avenue (where Campus Club stands today). The club members financed the purchase of the West house through sale of approximately $45,000 of "Princeton Campus Club Bonds." Once the residence was acquired, the new members began using the West residence as their clubhouse.</p><br>
<p>In 1909, the members of Campus Club elected to construct a new clubhouse, and the original West house was moved to the corner of Nassau Street and Princeton Avenue. The new clubhouse, designed by Raleigh C. Gildersleeve, who had previously designed McCosh Hall and completed alterations to Cap and Gown Club, was completed weeks prior to the 1910 commencement.</p><br>
<p>On November 24, 1951, a fire broke out inside of Campus Club. The fire caused extensive damage to the third floor, and a major renovation was required. Renovations were completed in 1953, and the club remained in this state until it was acquired by the University in 2005.</p><br>
<p>Doubtful Sound / Patea is a very large and naturally imposing fiord in Fiordland, in the far south west of New Zealand. It is located in the same region as the smaller but more famous and accessible Milford Sound. It took second place after Milford Sound as New Zealand&#39;s most famous tourism destination.</p><br>
<p>At 42 km long, Doubtful Sound is the longest, and with a depth of up to 421 m also the deepest of the South Islands fiords. In comparison with Milford Sound, it is more widespread, with the cliffs not as dramatically tall and near vertical. However, the U-shaped profile of the fiord is obvious, in particular on the two innermost of the main fiords arms and the hanging side valleys along the main fiord.</p><br>
<p>Like most of Fiordland, Doubtful Sound receives a high amount of rainfall, ranging from an annual average of 3000-6,000 mm. The vegetation on the mountainous landscape surrounding the fiord is dense native rainforest.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Doubtful Sound was named Doubtful Harbour in 1770 by Captain Cook, who did not enter the inlet as he was uncertain whether it was navigable under sail. It was later renamed Doubtful Sound by whalers and sealers, although it is not technically a sound but a fiord.</p><br>
<p>A Spanish scientific expedition commanded by Alessandro Malaspina visited Doubtful Sound in February 1793 to conduct experiments measuring the force of gravity using a pendulum, a part of the effort to establish a new metric system. The officers of the expedition, which included Felipe Bauzá y Cañas, a cartographer, also made the first chart of the entrance and lower parts of the Sound, naming features of it. Today these form a unique cluster containing most of the Spanish names on the map of New Zealand: Febrero Point, Bauza Island and the Nee Islets, Pendulo Reach, and Malaspina Reach.</p><br>
<p>Following the passage of the Ngai Tahu Claims Settlement Act 1998, the name of the fiord was officially altered to Doubtful Sound / Patea.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Doubtful Sound lies deep within the Fiordland National Park, about 50 km from the nearest inhabited place, the small town of Manapouri, and is surrounded by mountainous terrain with peaks typically reaching 1300-1,600 m. Along the coast, there are no settlements for about 200 km in either direction.</p><br>
<p>There are three distinct arms to the sound, which all extend to the south from the main fiord. From the major conflux of water just south of Secretary Island, these arms are:</p><br>
<p>First Arm, the shortest at 6 km long,</p><br>
<p>Crooked Arm, roughly halfway along the sound and the longest at 14 km long,</p><br>
<p>Hall Arm (8 km long), which branches off from the Sound&#39;s terminus at Deep Cove next to the prominent Commander Peak.</p><br>
<p>Crooked Arm reaches to within 1 km of Dagg Sound, almost cutting off a landmass of about 195 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>The Sound is the site of several large waterfalls, notably Helena Falls at Deep Cove and the Browne Falls, which have a fall of over 600 m. The steep hills surrounding the main fiord and its arms are known for their hundreds of waterfalls during the rainy season.</p><br>
<p>Doubtful Sound contains about a dozen smaller islands, with the more notable ones being Elizabeth Island, Fergusson Island, Bauza Island, and the Shelter Islands. Parts of the sound on the west side of Elizabeth Island are protected by the Taipari Roa (Elizabeth Island) Marine Reserve.</p><br>
<p>The last quarter of the sound closest to the sea is dominated by islands, the major one being Secretary Island to the north. At the southernmost tip of the island, Doubtful Sound opens up as a confluence of 5 bodies of water. From the western seaward end and going clockwise, these are:</p><br>
<p>Seaward end of Doubtful Sound, often referred to as "The Gut"</p><br>
<p>Thompson Sound</p><br>
<p>Bradshaw Sound</p><br>
<p>Continuation of Doubtful Sound to Deep Cove (Malaspina Reach)</p><br>
<p>First Arm</p><br>
<p>The narrow, shallower area of the sound between Bauza Island and Secretary Island ("The Gut") offers more shelter than areas further to the west and towards the sea. It is a popular fishing and mooring location and is a haven for crayfish.</p><br>
<p>Thompson Sound and Bradshaw Sound join in a short stretch named "Pendulo Reach" southeast of Secretary Island, and containing the tiny Seymour Island.</p><br>
<p>Access to the sound is either by sea or via the isolated Wilmot Pass road from the Manapouri Power Station. Most areas of the sound itself are accessible only by sea, however, as the road network in this area of New Zealand is sparse or nonexistent, as is the human population.</p><br>
<p>Charles John Lyttelton, 10th Viscount Cobham, Governor-General of New Zealand (1957–1962) wrote about this part of Fiordland:</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>Doubtful Sound (like many of the fiords in the area) is unusual in that it contains two distinct layers of water that scarcely mix. Depending on rainfall the night before, the top 2 - is fresh water, fed from the high inflows from the surrounding mountains, and stained brown with tannins from the forest. Below this and partially insulated by the fresh water above is a layer of warmer, heavy, saline water from the sea. The dark tannins in the fresh water layer make it difficult for light to penetrate. Thus, many deep-sea species grow in the comparatively shallow depths of the Sound. Such species include black coral (Antipatharia fiordensis), which is normally found at depths of 30 - but can be found at just 10 m in Doubtful Sound and is within the range of qualified recreational divers.</p><br>
<p>The catchment basin of Doubtful Sound is generally steep terrain that is heavily forested except for locations where surface rock exposures are extensive. Nothofagus trees are dominant in many locations. In the understory there are a wide variety of shrubs and ferns, including the crown fern, Blechnum discolor.</p><br>
<p>The fiord is home to one of the southernmost populations of bottlenose dolphins. The Doubtful Sound bottlenoses have formed a very insular subgroup of only about 70 individuals, with none having been observed to leave or enter the Sound during a multi-year monitoring regime. Their social grouping is thus extremely close, which is also partly attributed to the difficult and unusual features of their habitat, which is much colder than the habitats of other bottlenose groups and is also overlaid by the freshwater layer. Recently (2000s), there has been growing concern that the population is in significant decline, with calf survival rates having halved, as well as being noticeably lower than in captivity or in other New Zealand environments. The reasons for this are unclear, though increased tourism and the fresh-water discharge from the Manapouri Power Station (see Hydroelectricity section below) are considered potential causes.</p><br>
<p>Other wildlife to be found in Doubtful Sound includes fur seals and penguins, or even large whales. Southern right whales and humpback whales are the most frequently seen especially the later. Others include minke whale, sperm whale and some giant beaked whales). Orcas (killer whales) and long-finned pilot whales can be found also. The waters of Doubtful Sound are also home to an abundance of sea creatures, including many species of fish, starfish, sea anemones, and corals. It is perhaps best known for its black coral trees which occur in unusually shallow water for what is normally a deep-water species. The sound has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International because it is a breeding site for Fiordland penguins.</p><br>
<p>Secretary Island and Bauza Island are some of the most important sanctuaries in New Zealand for critically endangered birds.</p><br>
<h2>Hydroelectricity</h2><br>
<p>Deep Cove (45&deg;27&prime;S latitude, 167&deg;09&prime;E longitude), the innermost end of Doubtful Sound, is the site of discharge of water from the Manapouri Power Station&#39;s tailrace tunnels. Deep Cove, like the rest of Fiordland, is a unique and mostly pristine environment. The discharge of clear fresh water has affected fauna and flora by letting light into the lower layers of the sound. Nevertheless, this is an area naturally high in fresh water inflows (7.6 m of rain falls annually).</p><br>
<p>The small wharf at Deep Cove is on rare occasion also used to unload any equipment for the Manapouri Power Station that is too large to be ferried across Lake Manapouri. From Deep Cove, such equipment then has to be hauled over Wilmot Pass to the power station.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>Unlike the more easily accessible Milford Sound, it is not possible to drive to Doubtful Sound, as the Wilmot Pass road is not connected to the road network and only connects the Manapouri Hydro Power Station with Deep Cove.</p><br>
<p>The only options for visitors to visit Doubtful Sound are boat cruises. The less common way to access Doubtful Sound is by sea. However, there are some boat cruises that operate out of the small town of Manapouri. These day trips first take a boat across Lake Manapouri and then a bus on the gravel road across Wilmot Pass to the Sound, where the Doubtful Sound tour boats berth at a small wharf in Deep Cove. The tour companies offer a day option out of Te Anau/Manapouri or an overnight option.</p><br>
